if: 

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11       1 

IvIBRARY 

OF  THE 

University  of  California. 

Mrs.  SARAH  P.  WALSWORTH. 

Received  October,  1894. 
i/lccessions  ^o.^^()£^     Class  No. - 


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THE 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE 


THE    WORLD    AS    IT    IS. 


By    M.  VULLIET. 


ruitslHteb    from    lljc    Jrcntlj. 
BY    A    LADY. 


BOSTON: 

HICKLING,    SWAN,   AND    BROWN 

1856. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1856,  by 

IIicKLiNG,  Swan,  and  Brown, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


ELECTROTTPED    AT    THE 
BOSTON    STEREOTYPE    FOUNDRY. 


PREFACE. 


In  presenting  to  the  American  public  a  translation  of 
the  recent  and  very  valuable  work  of  M.  Yulltet,  enti- 
tled Esquisse  (Tune  nouvelle  Geog-raphie  Ph^sir/vr,  wc 
have  assumed  to  call  it  "  The  Geography  of  Nature,  or 
the  World  as  it  is."  Its  novelty,  interest,  and  value  con- 
sist in  associating  with  each  locahty  and  region  named  a 
vivid  description  of  its  prominent  natural  productions  and 
phenomena,  aided  by  pictorial  illustrations,  and  interest- 
ing facts  drawn  from  natural  history,  and  always  aiming 
to  promote  both  the  intellectual  and  moral  culture  of  the 
reader.  Each  ocean  is  characterized  by  its  winds  and 
currents,  its  curious  and  useful  vegetables  and  animals  ; 
each  continent,  in  its  components  of  mountain,  plateau, 
and  plain,  its  rivers,  lakes,  and  adjacent  islands,  is  pre- 
sented as  a  whole  and  in  parts,  indicating  its  aspect,  cli- 
mate, minerals,  vegetables,  animals,  and  population. 

At  a  time  when  so  much  is  being  done  in  our  country 
to  awaken  an  interest  in  the  study  of  physical  geogra- 
phy, a  work  of  this  character  comes  in  very  opportiuiely 
as  a  collateral  aid,  supplying  materials  for  elucidation  and 
reflection.    The  general  reader,  no  less  than  the  youtli- 

(3) 


4  PREFACE. 

fill  learner,  cannot  fail  to  reap  a  rich  reward  from  its 
perusal. 

The  accomplished  lady,  by  whom  the  labor  of  transla- 
tion was  performed,  merits  high  commendation  for  the 
fidelity  and  accuracy  with  which  she  has  rendered  the 
original  into  English.  The  whole  has  been  carefully  re- 
vised, and  many  important  additions  have  been  made  in 
various  parts  of  the  work,  especially  in  that  pertaining  to 
North  America.  A  large  number  of  the  pictorial  illus- 
trations have  been  redrawn,  and  greatly  improved.  We 
bespeak  for  the  volume  a  place  in  private  and  public 
libraries  in  the  school  room  and  in  the  drawing  room. 

The  Publishers. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    I. —  THE    EARTH    AND    THE    PLANETARY 

SYSTEM, 11 

CHAPTER  II.  —  THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  MOTIONS, 15 

CHAPTER  III. —  GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE 

CONTINENTS, 19 

CHAPTER  IV. —  GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE 

OCEANS 28 

Tides,  28.  —  Waves  —  Depth  of  the  Sea,  29.  —  Saltness  of  the 
Sea,  30.  —  Evaporation,  31.  —  Currents  of  the  Sea,  32.  —  Wa- 
terspouts, 33.  —  Animated  Nature  at  the  Bottom  of  the  Sea,  34. 

CHAPTER  v.  — DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  OCEANS, 37 

Section  1.  The  Northern  Ocean,  37. 

Section  2.  The  Southern  Ocean,  42. 

Section  3.  The  Atlantic  Ocean,  43. 

Section  4.  The  Indian  Ocean,  47. 

Section  5.  The  Pacific  Ocean,  50. 

CHAPTER  VL  —  THE  CONTINENT  OF  ASIA 54 

Section  1.  The  Limits  op  Asia. 

Seas,  54. 
Section  2.   Peninsulas  op  Asia. 

Anatolia,  59.  —  Arabia,  62.  —  India,  69.  —  Indo-China,   77.  — 

Corea  —  Kamtehatka,  82. 
Section  3.   Mountains  op  Asia. 

Himalaya,  85.  —  Sinechan,  88.  —  Yunling  —  Khin-gan  Moun- 
1  *  (5) 


b  CONTENTS. 

tains,  89.  —  Yablonnlo  —  Altai,  90.  —  Thian-Shan,  91.  —  Mong- 
Tagh  —  Bolor-Tagh,   92.  —  Ural  —  Caucasus,   93.  —  Taurus  — 
Lebanon,  95. 
Section  4.   Plateaus  of  Asia,  96. 

Thibet,  97. — Toorkistan   and  Mongolia,  98.  —  Soongaria,  101. 

—  Mantchooria  —  Iran,  102.  —  Ai-menia,  105.  —  Anatolia  — 
Syria,  106.  —  Judea,  107.  —  Nedjed  —  Deccan,  110. 

Section  5.   Plains  of  Asia. 

Hindostan   and  Bengal,   112.— China,   113.  —  Siberia,    118.— 

Toorkistan,  124.  —  Syria,  125. 
Section  6.   Lakes  of  Asia. 

Caspian,  127.  —  Aral  — Van  and  Ooroomeeyah  —  Dead  Sea,  129. 

—  Tiberias,  132.  — Baikal,  133. 
Section  7.   Pivers  of  Asia,  133. 

Obe,  Yenisei,  and  Lena,   134.  —  Amoor,  Hoang-ho,  and  Yang- 
tse-Kiang,  135.  —  Menam,  Irrawaddy,   138.  —  Ganges,   139.— 
Indus,  141.  —  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  142.  —  Oxus  and  Jaxartes, 
143.  —  Jordan,  144. 
Section  8.    Islands  of  Asia. 

New  Siberia,  145.  —  Koorile  —  Japan,  146.  —  Loo  Choo,  149.  — 
Formosa  —  Hainan  —  Ceylon,  150.  —  Maldives,  154.  —  Lacca- 
dives  —  Cyprus  —  Phodes  —  Sporades,  156. 

CHAPTER  Vll.  —  THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA, 158 

Section  1.   Form  and  Boundaries  of  Africa,  158. 

Section  2.   Mountains  of  Africa. 

Nieuwveld,  160.  —  Lupata,  163.  —  Mountains  of  the  Moon  — 
Congo  Mountains,  166.  —  Kong  Mountains,  167.  —  Atlas  Moun- 
tains, 168. 

Section  3.  Plateaus  of  Africa. 

Plateau  of  Southern  Upper  Africa,  171.  —  Southern  Terrace,  180. 

—  Terraces  of  the  Eastern  Coast,  186.  —  Northern  Terrace,  or 
Terrace  of  Lower  Soudan,  188.  —  Western  Terraces,  or  Congo, 
192.  —  Plateau  of  Abyssinia,  194.  —  Plateau  of  Upper  Soudan, 
200. 

Section  4.   Plains  of  Africa. 

The  Sahara,  or  Great  Desert,  207.  —  Plain  of  Scncgambia, 
213.  —  Coast  of  Guinea,  218.  —  Sierra  Leone,  221.  —  Liberia, 
222.  —  Plain  of  Egypt,  or  Valley  of  the  Nile,  224. 

Section  5.   Lakes  of  Africa. 

'Ngami  —  Dembea,  231.  —  Tchad,  233. 

Section  6.   Rivers  of  Africa. 

Orange  River,  233.  —  Zambeze  —  Nile,  235.  —  Zaire  and  Coanza 
.  —  Niger,  238.  —  Senegal  and  Gambia,  239. 


CONTENTS.  7 

Section  7.   Islands  of  Africa,  239. 

Madeira —  Canaiies,  240.  —  Cape  Verde,  241.  —  Islands  of  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea,  .242.  —  Madagascar,  243.  —  Bourbon,  Isle  of 
France,  247.  —  Comoro,  Seychelles,  Socotra,  248. 

CHAPTER  VIII.  —  THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE 249 

Section  1.   Boundaries,  249. 

North  Sea,  250.  —  Baltic  Sea,  252.  —  English  Channel,  253.  — 
Irish  Sea,  255.—  Bay  of  Biscay  —  Mediterranean,  256.  —  Adri- 
atic Sea  —  Ionian  Sea,  259.  —  The  Archipelago  —  Sea  of  Mar- 
mora, 260.  —  Black  Sea  —  Sea  of  Azof,  261. 

Section  2.  Peninsulas  op  Europe. 

Scandinavia,  262.  —  Jutland,  272.  —  Bretagne,  274.  —  Spanish 
Peninsula,  276.  —  Italy,  283.  —  The  Turco-Grecian  Peninsula, 
290.  —  The  Crimea,  296. 

Section  3.   Mountains  of  Europe. 

The  Alps,  298. —The  Jura,  306.  — The  Vosges— Cote  d'Or, 
307.  —  Cevennes  —  Auvergne  —  Limousin,  308.  —  Black  Forest 

—  Rauke  Alp,  309.  —  Erz-Gebirge  —  Sudetic  Mountains,  310. 

—  Moravian  Mountains,  Bohemian  Forest,  311.  —  The  Harz  — 
Carpathian   Mountains,    312.  —  Scandinavian   Mountains,   313. 

—  PjTenees  —  Cantabrian  —  Iberian  Mountains,  314.  —  Sierra 
Guadarama  —  Morena,    315.  —  Nevada  —  The  Apennines,   316. 

—  Dinaric  Alps,  317.  — Balkan  Mountains  —  Pindus,  318. 
Section  4.  Plateaus  or  Europe. 

Swiss  Plateau,  319.  —  Plateau  of  Bavaria,  320.  —  Bohemia,  321. 

—  Plateau  of  Transylvania  —  Old  Castile,  324. —New  Castile, 
325. 

Section  5.   Plains  of  Europe. 

Plain  of  Russia,  326.  —  Germanic  Plain,  334.  —  Holland  and 
Belgium,  336.  —  Plains  of  France,  339.  —  Rhine  —  Hungary,  342. 

—  Plain  of  Wallachia,  345.  —  Arragon,  346.  —  Andalusia  — 
Plain  of  the  Po,  347. 

Section  6.   Lakes  of  Europe. 

Lakes  of  the  Swiss  Plateau,  348.  —  Lakes  of  Italy,  350.  — 
Lakes  of  Hungary  —  Russia,  351.  —  Lakes  of  Sweden,  352. 

Section  7.  Rivers  of  Europe. 

Rivers  which  flow  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  —  the  Baltic  Sea,  353. 

—  Rivers  of  the  North  Sea,  354.  —  Rivers  of  the  English  Chan- 
nel—  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  356.  —  Rivers  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, 358.  —  River  of  the  Caspian,  362. 

Section  8.    Islands  op  Europe. 

Islands  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  362.  —  Islands  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  364.  —  Anglo-Norman  Islands  —  Islands  of  the  Baltic, 
373.  —  Islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  374, 


8  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IX.  — THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA, 380 

Section  1.   Extent  and  General  Features,  380. 
Section  2.   Bats  and  Gulfs  of  America. 

Hudson's  Bay— Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  381.  — Gulf  of  Mexico 

—  Caribbean  Sea,  383.  —  Gulf  of  CaHfomia,  385. 
Section  3.  Peninsulas  of  America. 

Labrador,  386.  —  Nova  Scotia,  390.  —  Florida,  392.  —  Yucatan, 
397.  —  California,  399.  —  Russian  America,  400. 

Section  4.  —  Mountains  of  America. 

The  Andes,  401.  —  Rocky  Mountains,  410.  —  Appalachian 
Mountains,  411.  —  Cordillera  of  Venezuela,  412,  —  Parima 
Mountains,  413.  —  MoTintaitis  of  Brazil,  414. 

Section  5.   Plateaus  and  DECLniTiES  of  America. 

Terraces  of  Chili,  415.  —  Plateaus  of  Bolivia,  419.  —  Peruvian 
Plateau,  423.  —  Plateau  of  Quito,  426.  —  New  Granada,  428. 

—  Plateau  of  Central  America,  430.  —  Plateau  of  Anahuac  or 
Mexico,  433.  —  New  Mexico,  439.  —  New  California,  440.  —  Or- 
egon, 443.  —  Plateau  of  Brazil,  445. 

Section  6.   Plains  of  America. 

Patagonia,  450.  —  Pampas  of  La  Plata,  452.  —  Maritime  Plain 
of  Brazil,  460.  —Plains  of  Guiana,  469. — Llanos  of  Orinoco, 
474. — Plain  of  Magdalena,  476.  —  Valley  of  the  Mississippi^ 
477.  —  Atlantic  Plain,  484.  —  Basm  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  491. 

—  Northern  Plams,  495. 
Section  7.   Lakes  op  America,  503. 

Lakes  of  the  Northern  Plain  of  North  America  —  The  Great 
Lakes,  504.  —  Lakes  of  Mexico,  507.  —  Lake  Nicaragua  — 
Maracaybo,  508.  —  Titicaca,  509. 

Section  8.    Rr^ers   of  America. 

Rivei-s  which  flow  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  509.  —  Rivers  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  510.  —  Rivers  which  flow  into  the  Paci^c 
Ocean,  516. 

Section  9.  Islands  of  America. 

Arctic  Lands,  516.  —  Greenland,  518.  —  Newfoundland,  521. — 
Bermudas  —  Bahamas  —  Greater  Antilles,  523.  —  Lesser  An- 
tilles, 527.  —  Falkland  Islands  —  Terra  del  Fuego,  529.  —  ChUoo, 
530.  —  Juan  Fernandez  —  Gallapagos — Aleutian  Islands,   531. 

CHAPTER  X.  — OCEANICA 533 

Section  1.    Divisions,  533. 

Section  2.    Central   Oceanica. 

Australia,  533. —  New  Guinea,  569.  —  New  Britain,  574.— 
New  Hebrides  — New  Caledonia,  575.  —  Fcejec  Islands,  576.  — 
Van  Dicmcn's  Ltmd,  578. 


CONTENTS.  9 

Section  3.  Western  Oceanica. 

Isles  of  Sunda,  579.  —  Moluccas,  or  Spice  Islands,  687.  —  Cele- 
bes —  Borneo,  591,  —  Philippines,  593. 

Section  4.  Polynesia. 

Sandwich  Islands,  596.  —  Marquesas,  598.  —  Low  Islands, 
599.  —  Society  Islands,  600.  —  Austral  Islands  —  Cook  Islands, 
602.  —  Navigator's  —  Friendly  —  New  Zealand,  603.  —  Archi- 
pelago of  Magellan  —  Marianne  —  Carolines,  609.  —  Pclew  Isl- 
ands —  Mulgraves,  610. 


THE  GEOGEAPHY  OF  NATURE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  EARTH  AND  THE  PLANETARY  SYSTEM. 

Geography  is  a  description  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  different 
parts  of  its  surface. 

The  earth  seems  to  us  very  great,  and  yet  in  reality  it  is  one 
of  the  smallest  globes  which  exist  in  space ;  it  is  as  a  point  in 
the  immensity  of  the  universe.  To  form  an  idea  of  it,  represent 
to  yourself  that  a  body  of  the  same  size  as  the  sun  would  be 
equal  to  more  than  320,000  globes  of  the  size  of  the  earth. 

Planetary  System.  —  Our  earth  is  not  a  body  isolated  in 
space.  It  forms  part  of  a  body  of  stars  which  compose  what  is 
called  our  solar  or  planetary  system,  and  all  revolving  around  the 
sun,  from  which  they  receive  their  beneficent  heat  and  shining 
light.  The  sun,  which  is  the  centre  of  our  planetary  system,  is  not 
the  centre  of  the  universe,  as  was  for  a  long  time  supposed ;  it  seems 
to  move  in  space  with  all  the  celestial  bodies,  which  it  draws  in 
its  train.  Thus  the  entire  solar  system,  which  appears  so  immense 
to  our  feeble  sight,  (even  aided  by  the  most  powerful  telescopes,) 
occupies  but  a  very  small  space  in  the  universe.  "  Lo,  these  are 
parts  of  Ms  ways,  hut  how  little  a  portion  is  heard  of  him  !  "  Such 
was  the  language  of  the  holy  man  Job,  many  thousand  years  ago. 
Beyond  the  sun,  beyond  even  the  remotest  space,  which  our  most 
powerful  instruments  enable  us  to  penetrate,  other  suns  or  stars 
exist  in  innumerable  multitudes,  around  which  doubtless  revolve 
planets  dependent  on  each  of  them.  We  can  scarcely  conceive 
of  the  distance    that   separates  us    from   these  sparkling  con- 

(11) 


12  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

etellations,  which  on  a  clear  night  inspire  us  with  so  much  admi- 
ration. Learned  men  affirm  that  it  takes  no  less  than  three  years 
for  the  light  of  the  nearest  of  these  stars  to  reach  us ;  and  yet 
light  requires  only  eight  minutes  to  accomplish  the  distance  be- 
tween the  sun  and  the  earth :  in  other  words,  it  has  been  esti- 
mated that  an  ordinary  locomotive  would  occupy  more  than 
83,000,000  of  years  in  travelling  such  a  distance.  We  cannot 
imagine  the  incredible  distance  of  those  suns  which  our  most 
powerful  instruments  can  scarcely  render  visible.  How  great 
then  is  that  God,  whose  wondrous  works  "  the  heaven  of  heavens 
cannot  contain^^  "  which  doeth  great  things,  past  finding  ovt, 
yea,  and  wonders  without  number.^'     (Job  ix.  10.) 

After  this  glance  at  the  innumerable  worlds  which  people  the 
firmament,  let  us  return  to  our  solar  system.  It  is  composed  of 
four  kinds  of  stars  —  the  sun,  the  planets,  the  satellites  of  planets, 
and  finally,  the  comets. 

Sun.  —  The  sun,  the  centre  of  the  whole  system,  forces  the 
planets  and  comets  to  revolve  around  it  by  the  attraction  which 
it  exercises  over  them.  It  appears  to  be  an  opaque  body,  sur- 
rounded by  a  luminous  atmosphere  or  cloud,  which  communicates 
light  and  heat  to  all  the  neighboring  planets.  By  the  aid  of  im- 
mense dark  spots,  which  by  means  of  the  telescope  have  been 
discovered  on  the  surface  of  this  luminous  atmosphere,  it  has 
been  ascertained  that  the  sun  turns  once  upon  its  axis  in  twenty- 
five  days  and  a  half. 

Planets.  —  There  are  28  planets  now  known ;  some  very 
small,  and  visible  only  by  the  aid  of  excellent  telescopes ;  oth- 
ers large  and  perfectly  clear  to  the  naked  eye :  thus  Jupiter, 
the  largest  of  all,  is  1470  times  the  size  of  our  earth.  Planets 
are  opaque  bodies ;  that  is  to  say,  destitute  of  natural  light,  and 
only  reflecting  to  us  that  which  they  borrow  from  the  sun.  Now, 
almost  every  year,  some  new  planet  is  discovered. 

Satellites. — The  name  satellites  has  been  given  to  other 
smaller  stars,  which  revolve  around  several  of  our  planets,  and 
accompany  them  in  their  course  around  the  sun.  The  Earth  has 
one  —  the  Moon;  Jupiter,  four;  Saturn,  seven;  Uranus,  six: 
around  the  planet  Saturn,  moreover,  an  immense  double  ring  may 
be  seen  to  revolve.     Of  all  these  satellites,  the  moon  is  the  most 


THE  EARTH  AND  THE  PLANETARY  SYSTEM.      13 

interesting  to  us,  because  it  is  comparatively  near,  and  exercises  a 
certain  influence  upon  our  earth.  The  moon  revolves  around  the 
earth  in  the  space  of  about  a  month.  Like  us  it  draws  its  light 
from  the  sun,  and  presents  to  us,  according  to  its  position,  different 
appearances,  which  we  call  phases.  When  it  appears  between 
the  sun  and  the  earth  it  is  invisible,  the  illuminated  part  being 
turned  towards  the  sun  ;  there  is  then  a  new  moon.  In  this  case 
the  moon  may  hide  the  sun  from  us  more  or  less  completely,  oc- 
casioning what  is  called  an  eclipse  of  the  sun.  When  the  earth, 
on  the  contrary,  passes  between  the  sun  and  the  moon,  the  whole 
illuminated  face  of  the  latter  being  turned  towards  us,  it  ap- 
pears perfectly  round,  and  we  then  call  it  full  moon.  It  some- 
times happens  in  this  position  that  the  moon  passes  into  the 
shadow  of  the  earth,  and  cannot  then  receive  the  rays  of  the 
sun ;  in  this  event  there  is  an  eclipse  of  the  moon.  Wlien  the 
moon  is  in  the  intermediate  positions,  and  shows  us  only  one  half 
of  its  illuminated  face,  it  is  said  to  be  in  its  first  or  last  quarter. 

Comets.  —  To  the  last  order  of  celestial  bodies  belonging  to 
our  solar  system  has  been  given  the  name  of  comets.  They  are 
singular  bodies,  always  enveloped  in  a  kind  of  shining  manthy 
usually  terminating  in  a  long,  luminous  train,  which  is  called  their 
tail.  Several  hundreds  of  them  have  actually  been  counted.  They 
revolve  around  the  sun,  but  sometimes  wander  to  a  great  distance 
from  it.  It  is  a  mistaken  idea  to  suppose  that  the  approach  of 
comets  diffuses  wannth  over  our  globe.  They  are  not  large 
enough,  and  do  not  appear  to  be  possessed  of  sufficient  heat. 

Double  Movement  of  all  these  Stars.  —  As  a  top,  thrown 
with  force,  in  escaping  from  your  hand  describes  circles  of  greater 
or  less  extent  upon  the  floor,  and  at  the  same  time  turns  rapidly 
upon  its  own  axis,  or  as  a  ball,  hurled  by  you  into  space,  turns 
upon  its  axis  in  describing  a  half  circle,  so  all  the  stars  of  our 
solar  system  have  a  double  movement:  they  turn  upon  them- 
selves, and  at  the  same  time  describe  around  the  globe,  which 
serves  for  their  centre,  curves  more  or  less  elongated,  which  are 
called  ellipses. 

Two  very  simple  forces  are  suflicient  to  produce  the  elliptical 
movement,  and  to  create  that  majestic  harmony  whereby  the 
heavens  reveal  the  wisdom  of  the  Creator.  On  theione  hand, 
2 


14  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

the  sun  attracts  the  other  planets,  (as  the  magnet  attracts  the 
steel,)  and  prevents  their  wandering  from  it ;  this  is  what  is  called 
the  force  of  attraction,  which,  if  it  operated  alone,  would  precipi- 
tate all  these  globes  together,  and  produce  chaos.  On  the  other 
hand,  each  star,  in  its  rapid  movement  on  its  axis,  has  a  tendency 
to  diverge,  and  escape  far  from  its  centre  in  a  straight  line,  by 
virtue  of  another  force,  opposed  to  the  first ;  precisely  as,  when 
you  turn  a  sling,  the  stone  strives  to  escape  in  a  direct  line,  and  only 
continues  to  turn  around  with  your  arm  because  it  is  retained  by 
the  cords  which  you  hold  in  your  hand.  By  the  combination  of 
these  two  opposite  forces  the  movements  of  the  celestial  bodies 
proceed  with  such  perfect  regularity  that  men  can  calculate,  many 
centuries  in  advance,  the  precise  moment  of  an  eclipse,  the  return 
of  a  comet,  the  instant  of  the  rising  of  sun  or  moon,  on  such  a 
day  or  in  such  a  place. 

Such  order  and  harmony  does  the  spectacle  of  the  firmament 
every  where  present;  and  if  the  grandeur  and  infinite  number 
of  its  worlds  have  already  impressed  us  with  the  power  of  the 
Almighty,  his  wisdom  will  manifest  itself  no  less  forcibly  to  our 
view  when  we  proceed  to  consider  the  wonderful  order  of  these 
innumerable  worlds,  which,  borne  through  the  heavens  for 
thousands  of  years  with  a  swiftness  that  startles  our  imagination, 
and  unceasingly  revolving  around  each  other  in  various  direc- 
tions, eternally  pursue,  without  violent  shock,  without  confu- 
sion, or  even  a  moment's  delay,  the  march  which  infinite  wisdom 
assigned  to  each  in  the  first  days  of  oreation.  Truly  "  the  heavens 
declare  the  glory  of  God,  and  the  firmament  showeth  his  handi- 
work. Day  unto  day  uttereth  speech,  and  night  unto  night  showeth 
knowledge.  There  is  no  speech  nor  language  where  their  voice  is 
not  heard ;  their  line  is  gone  out  through  all  the  earth,  and  their 
words  to  the  end  of  the  world'^     (Psalm  xix.) 


CHAPTER  11. 

THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  MOTIONS. 

The  earth  is,  then,  as  we  have  seen,  a  planet.  It  is  nearest  the 
sun,  after  Mercury  and  Venus,  and  in  size  ranks  next  ]^Jupiter, 
Saturn,  and  Uranus.  It  has  the  moon  for  a  satelHte,  whose  mild 
light  dissipates  the  obscurity  of  our  nights,  and  divides  our  year 
into  twelve  months,  because  the  moon  repeats  its  course  around 
the  earth  twelve  times  while  the  latter  performs  its  annual  revo- 
lution around  the  sun. 

Like  all  the  other  planets,  the  earth  is  spherical,  or  round,  in 
form,  but  slightly  flattened  at  the  two  opposite  points  which  are 
called  poles.  Perhaps  my  young  readers  find  it  difficult  to  believe 
that  the  earth  is  round ;  and  for  a  long  time  people  would  not  admit 
it.  Yet  there  are  abundant  proofs  of  this  fact.  As  in  the  eclipses 
of  the  moon  the  shadow  of  the  earth  always  forms  a  circular  spot 
upon  the  moon,  it  then  follows  that  the  earth  itself  must  be  round. 
As  we  watch  a  vessel  going  out  of  port,  its  hull  first  disappears, 
then  its  sails,  and  lastly  the  extreme  end  of  the  main  mast,  which 
would  not  be  the  case  if  the  ,©arth  were  flat.  Moreover,  for  three 
hundred  years  voyagers  have  made  the  circuit  of  the  world  in 
every  direction,  thus  proving  beyond  a  doubt  its  spherical  form. 

The  earth  is  about  25,000  miles  in  circumference. 

Like  all  the  planets,  our  globe  has  tAvo  movements  —  that  of 
rotation,  by  virtue  of  which  it  turns  upon  its  axis,  and  that  of  trans- 
lation, by  which  it  revolves  around  the  sun.  It  occupies  a 
duration  of  24  hours  in  accomplishing  a  movement  of  rotation 
upon  its  axis ;  whence  it  results  that  during  nearly  half  the  time 
the  part  of  the  earth  which  we  inhabit  is  turned  towards  the 
sun,  and  it  is  day ;  after  which  it  is  in  its  turn  carried  to  the 
opposite  side,  and  then  it  is  night.    The  earth  is  365  days  and  6 

(15) 


16  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

hours  in  accomplishing  its  grand  movement  around  the  sun.  This 
revolution  forms  the  year,  and  gives  rise  to  the  seasons.* 

By  its  movement  of  rotation  the  points  most  remote  from  the 
axis  of  the  earth  traverse  a  space  of  25,000  miles  in  24  hours, 
which  constitutes  a  speed  of  more  than  1000  miles  an  hour,  while 
the  utmost  speed  attained  on  railroads  does  not  exceed  60  miles  an 
hour.  We  do  not  perceive  this  rapid  motion,  because  the  clouds, 
land,  and  water  are  carried  with  us.  When  borne  rapidly  along 
in  a  steamboat,  we  are  sometimes  unconscious  of  the  motion,  be- 
cause the  persons  and  objects  on  board  are  transported  with  us, 
and  appear  to  remain  immovable. 

Cardinal  Points.  —  It  was  found  necessary  to  establish  cer- 
tain fixed  points  on  our  globe,  known  every  where  by  the  same 
names,  and  by  means  of  which  the  situation  of  any  place  on  the 
earth  could  be  defined.  These  fixed  points  are  called  the  four 
cardinal  points  —  the  north,  south,  east,  and  west. 

The  north  is  towards  that  pole  which  is  opposite  to  us  when  we 
turn  our  back  to  the  sun  at  noon,  and  which  is  designated  by  the 
name  of  the  arctic  pole,  because  it  is  situated  opposite  a  constella- 
tion of  stars  called  in  Greek  Arctos,  (a  bear.) 

The  point  at  the  opposite  extremity  is  called  south,  because  it 
is  the  direction  in  which  we  see  the  sun  at  noon.  This  southerly 
point  corresponds  with  the  opposite  pole,  which  is  known  by  the 
name  of  the  antarctic  pole. 

The  east  is  the  point  at  which  we  see  the  sun  rise,  whilst 
the  west  is  the  point  at  which  the  sun  sets,  or  r^her  appears 
to  set. 

To  define  with  more  precision  the  direction  of  places,  we  again 
distinguish  between  the  four  cardinal  points  other  intermediate 
points ;  as,  the  north-east,  between  the  north  and  east,  the  north- 
west, between  the  north  and  west,  the  south-west,  between  the 
south  and  west,  and  finally  the  south-east,  between  the  south  and 
east. 

It  is  easy  to  learn  one's  position,  that  is,  to  discover  these  differ- 
ent points  during  the  day,  by  means  of  the  sun.     On  a  clear 

*  An  ordinary  year  is  composed  of  365  days ;  the  6  hours  not  included  in  this 
calculation  form,  at  the  end  of  4  years,  24  hours,  or  a  day.  Thus  we  have 
every  four  years  a  year  called  leap  year,  or  366  days. 


THE   EARTH   AND   ITS  MOTIONS.  17 

night  we  may  have  recourse  to  the  polar  star,  easily  recognized 
by  its  proximity  to  the  brilliant  constellation  of  the  Great  Bear. 
But  in  foul  weather  a  position  can  only  be  recognized  by  means 
of  the  compass  —  an  admirable  instrument,  whose  magnetic 
needle  has  the  singular  property  of  always  turning  towards  the 
north. 

Latitudes  and  Longitudes.  —  But  men,  not  satisfied  with 
establishing  general  positions  or  points  by  which  places  could  be 
defined,  found  it  necessary  to  fix  in  an  exact  manner  the  precise 
situation  of  each  place ;  and  for  this  purpose  the  globes  which  rep- 
resent the  earth  have  been  divided  by  imaginary  lines  into  a  great 
number  of  perfectly  defined  circles.  Thus  at  an  equal  distance 
from  the  poles  we  suppose  a  great  circle  called  the  equator,  or 
equinoctial  line,  which  divides  the  earth  into  two  equal  parts  — • 
the  northern  and  the  souihern  hemisphere. 

All  the  circles  which  cut  the  globe  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
equator  are  parallels  to  the  equator.  The  distance  of  a  place  from 
the  equator  is  called  its  latitude,  (north  or  south,  according  as  it  is 
situated  in  the  northern  or  southern  hemisphere.)  Latitude  is 
calculated  by  degrees ;  and  it  has  been  decided  to  establish  90  de- 
grees of  latitude  north,  and  90  south  of  the  equator.  These 
degrees  are  denoted  on  all  the  maps  and  charts  which  represent 
the  whole  or  any  part  of  the  terrestrial  globe. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  circle  which  cuts  the  globe  in  an  exactly 
opposite  direction,  that  is  to  say,  perpendicularly  to  the  equ-ator, 
passing  through  the  two  poles,  is  called  a  meridian.  We  may 
suppose  as  many  of  these  circles  as  we  please ;  each  of  them 
will  divide  the  globe  into  an  eastern  and  western  hemisphere.  It 
has  been  thought  advisable,  however,  to  have  only  3 GO  of  them, 
one  of  which,  denoted  on  the  charts  by  a  cipher,  is  the  first,  or 
the  one  from  which  all  the  others  are  reckoned,  both  east  and 
west.  The  distance  of  a  place  from  the  first  meridian  is  called 
its  longitude,  {east  or  west,  according  as  the  place  is  situated  east 
or  west  of  the  first  meridian ;)  and  as  longitude  is  reckoned  by 
degrees,  there  are  180  degrees  of  east  and  the  same  of  west  lon- 
gitude. 

Zones.  —  Among  the  parallel  circles  of  which  we  have  just 
spoken,  there  are  four  of  more  importance  than  the  rest,  and 


b 


18  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

which  are  distinguished  by  particular  names  :  these  are  the  trop' 
ics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn,  the  former  north  and  the  latter 
south  of  the  equator ;  and  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  polar  circles, 
as  far  from  the  poles  as  the  tropics  are  from  the  equator.  These 
four  circles  establish  a  division  of  the  earth  into  five  grand  zones  ; 
the  one  between  the  two  tropics  called  torrid,  (or  burning,)  ex- 
posed to  the  perpendicular  rays  of  the  sun,  sometimes  presents 
dry  and  parched  regions,  and  sometimes  the  most  magnificent 
vegetation.  Summer  is  perpetual  there,  and  the  rainy  season 
takes  the  place  of  winter.  Next  come  the  two  temperate  zones  ; 
the  north  temperate  zone,  between  the  tropic  of  Cancer  and  the 
Arctic  polar  circle,  and  the  south  temperate  zone,  between  the  trop- 
ic of  Capricorn  and  the  Antarctic  polar  circle.  These  temperate 
zones  present  neither  the  arid  deserts  nor  the  superb  vegetation 
which  is  met  with  in  the  torrid  zones ;  they  are,  however,  the 
most  blessed  and  highly  favored  of  all.  Lastly,  the  north  and 
south  frigid  zones  extend  between  the  polar  circles  and  the 
poles.  These  are  barren  countries,  which  never  receive  the  rays 
of  the  sun  except  obliquely  and  for  a  short  time,  and  where  all 
nature  seems  completely  benumbed  by  perpetual  frosts. 


CHAPTER    in. 

GENERAL   OBSERVATIONS   ON    THE    CONTINENTS. 

If  you  cast  a  glance  over  a  map  of  the  world,  you  will  observe 
that  the  surface  of  the  globe  is  divided  into  large  bodies  of  land, 
which  are  called  continents,  and  great  basins  of  water,  called  seas. 
Moreover,  as  in  the  portions  covered  with  water  you  will  remark 
still  smaller  bodies  of  land,  which  rise  above  the  surrounding 
waves,  and  are  called  islands,  you  will  likewise  perceive  in  the 
midst  of  the  continents  isolated  spaces  covered  with  water,  which 
are  called  lakes.  The  sea  and  land  often  project  into  each  other. 
The  sea,  penetrating  into  the  interior  of  the  continents,  there  forms 
gulfs,  hays^  or  even  inland  seas  —  small  seas  surrounded  by  land, 
and  only  communicating  with  other  waters  by  narrow  arms  of  the 
sea,  which  are  denominated  channels  or  straits.  Continents  like- 
wise project  more  or  less  prominent  points  into  the  bosom  of  the 
waters,  which  are  known  by  the  name  of  capes  or  promontories, 
and  even  sometimes  form  peninsulas  in  the  sea ;  that  is,  projec- 
tions which  are  only  connected  with  other  portions  of  land  by  a 
strip  of  land,  or  isthmus.  Three  quarters  of  the  surface  of  our 
globe  are  covered  by  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  a  vast  sea,  from 
which  arise,  like  so  many  islands,  numerous  bodies  of  land,  of 
every  size  and  proportion.  The  two  most  considerable  of  these 
terrestrial  bodies  compose  the  Old  World,  so  called  because  it  was 
the  cradle  of  the  human  race  and  of  the  most  ancient  people,  and 
the  New  World,  thus  designated  because  only  discovered  by 
Europeans  in  comparatively  modern  times.  Strictly  speaking,  we 
have  only  these  two  continents ;  but  in  ordinary  usage,  five  are 
counted,  which  are  called  the  five  divisions  of  the  world — Asia, 
Africa,  Europe,  America,  and  Australia.  Asia,  which  forms 
all  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  ancient  continent,  is  the  largest 
of  the  five  divisions  of  the  world.     There  lived  the  first  men,  and 


20  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

from  thence,  after  the  deluge,  they  were  distributed  over  the 
whole  surface  of  the  earth.  Asia  possesses  all  climates,  is  capa- 
ble of  all  kinds  of  cultivation,  and  every  thing  there  exhibits  grand 
proportions.  It  is  very  cold  in  the  north  and  extremely  hot  in 
the  south  of  Asia ;  there  are  found  very  vast  plains  and  the  high- 
est mountains  in  the  world ;  and  at  the  same  time  that  it  has  in 
many  places  a  soil  of  great  fertility,  it  also  contains  elsewhere 
perfectly  arid  deserts. 

Africa,  situated  south-west  of  the  Old  World,  with  which  it  is 
only  connected  by  the  sandy  Isthmus  of  Suez,  is  much  smaller 
than  Asia.  With  its  coasts  destitute  of  gulfs  or  projections,  it 
has  much  less  the  appearance  of  a  continent  by  itself,  than  of  a 
simple  peninsula  of  Asia.  It  is  the  hottest,  or  rather  the  most 
scorching,  of  the  five  divisions  of  the  world.  Its  coasts  are  gen- 
erally very  fertile,  but  the  interior  contains  the  largest  deserts 
that  are  found  on  the  globe. 

Europe,  situated  north-west  of  the  ancient  continent,  is  one 
of  the  smallest  divisions  of  the  world ;  but  it  is  the  most  impor- 
tant, owing  to  its  civilization  and  the  activity  of  its  inhabitants. 
The  climate  is  temperate,  and  the  productions  are  not  very 
manifold ;  but  it  is  the  best  cultivated,  and  the  most  embellished 
by  the  arts  and  labors  of  the  human  race.  This  continent  at 
the  present  time  exercises  the  supremacy  over  the  rest  of  the 
world. 

America  is  a  double  continent,  composed  of  two  peninsulas 
united  by  the  rocky  Isthmus  of  Panama :  North  America  and 
South  America,  the  latter  of  which  has  coasts  as  irregular  as 
those  of  Africa.  This  is,  next  to  Asia,  the  largest  of  the  divisions 
of  the  world.  It  is  very  cold  at  the  north  and  at  the  opposite 
extremity,  while  towards  the  centre  the  heat  is  very  great.  The 
soil  is  generally  moist,  and  this  continent  possesses  the  largest 
rivers  and  lakes,  and  the  most  exuberant  vegetation. 

South-east  of  Asia  is  found  still  another  small  continent,  called 
Australia,  from  its  situation  in  the  southern,  (austral)  hemisphere, 
and  which  is  the  principal  portion  of  the  fifth  division  of  the 
world,  called  Oceanica,  or  islands  of  the  great  ocean.  These 
islands,  although  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  the  equator,  have  not 
a  burning  climate,  on  account  of  the  cool  winds  which  the  sea 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  CONTINENTS.     21 

every  where  affords,  and  they  generally  possess  a  luxuriant  vege- 
tation. But  Australia  presents  in  its  interior  immense  deserts 
of  sand,  subject  to  a  scorching  temperature,  at  the  same  time 
that  its  coasts  offer  a  very  agreeable  climate  and  the  advantages 
of  a  fertile  soiL  This  country  exhibits  strange  peculiarities  in  its 
animals  and  vegetables,  of  wliich  we  shall  speak  more  particularly 
hereafter.  Nevertheless,  its  fertiUty,  and  especially  the  recent 
discovery  of  its  abundant  gold  mines,  give  promise  of  Australia's 
one  day, becoming  anew  Europe,  reproducing  its  advanced  civil- 
ization, its  manners,  its  religion,  and  also  its  vices. 

We  include  with  each  of  these  five  continents  the  islands  which 
lie  contiguous.  These  islands,  numerous  as  they  are,  present  an 
insignificant  extent  of  surface  in  proportion  to  that  of  the  conti- 
nents, as  they  are  only  equivalent  to  a  twenty-fourth  part  of  them. 
Land  is  much  more  distributed  in  the  northern  than  in  the  south- 
em  hemisphere  —  the  latter  being  almost  entirely  occupied  by 
the  waters  of  the  ocean.  The  form  of  the  continents  is  also  ex- 
tremely irregular ;  they  only  resemble  each  other  in  this  respect, 
that  they  generally  terminate  at  the  south  in  peninsulas,  tapering 
in  very  decided  points. 

The  diversities  which  the  continents  present  in  their  interior 
are  no  less  numerous.  Sometimes  they  rise  slightly  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  form  'plains,  which  take  different  names, 
according  to  their  aspect  and  character ;  when  sandy  and  dry, 
producing  only  grass,  and  no  trees,  they  are, called  steppes ;  savan- 
nas, when  they  are  moist  and  covered  with  abundant  herbage ; 
7^awo5,  when  they  are  only  clothed  with  vegetation  during  the 
rainy  season,  and  afterwai*ds  become  parched  and  arid ;  finally, 
deserts,  when  their  rocky  or  sandy  surface  is  destitute  of  water 
and  verdure.  Sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  continents  form  high 
lands,  among  which  may  be  distinguished  plateaus,  or  regions 
usually  enclosed  by  mountains,  the  whole  of  which  is  elevated,  and 
raountains,  or  systems  of  mountains,  which  rise  to  considerable 
heights  in  certain  places  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Mountains,  closely  inspected,  appear  of  enormous  magnitude ; 
but  their  size  is  diminutive  in  proportion  to  the  whole  body  of 
the  terrestrial  globe.  They  have  often  been  compared  to  the  pro- 
tuberances which  are  found  on  the  surface  of  an  orange ;   but 


k 


22  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

perhaps  we  should  give  our  juvenile  readers  a  more  exact  idea  of 
the  insignificance  of  their  dimensions  by  stating  that  if  the  entire 
chain  of  the  Pyrenees  (situated  between  France  and  Spain)  were 
levelled  over  the  whole  of  France,  the  soil  would  only  be  raised 
9  feet ;  and  if  the  Alps,  the  principal  chain  of  mountains  in  Eu- 
rope, were  in  like  manner  levelled  over  all  the  European  soil,  the 
latter  would  be  raised  only  19  feet  and  a  half. 

At  first  it  may  seem  incredible  to  the  imagination  that  there 
are  portions  of  the  contineiits  helow  the  level  of  the  sea.  There 
are,  however,  in  Western  Asia,  around  a  great  lake  called  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  celebrated  lakes  of  Tiberias 
and  the  Dead  Sea,  countries  of  some  importance  which  are  much 
below  the  level  of  the  sea;  but  the  mountains  or  high  lands 
which  separate  them  from  the  ocean  furnish  barriers  to  the  wa- 
ters, which  would  otherwise  overwhelm  them. 

The  temperature  of  the  continents  varies  according  to  their 
latitude  and  their  height  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  All  places 
which  are  in  the  same  latitude  do  not,  however,  enjoy  the  same 
temperature ;  thus,  of  three  cities,  situated,  the  first  in  Asia,  the 
second  in  Europe,  and  the  third  in  America,  the  first  and  last  will 
enjoy  a  much  cooler  climate  than  the  European  city,  although  all 
three  may  be  in  the  same  latitude.  The  proximity  of  oceans, 
the  exposure  to  the  winds  which  come  from  the  poles  or  the 
equator,  and  the  elevation  of  the  soil,  exert  an  immense  influence 
over  the  temperature. 

By  digging  into  the  heart  of  continents  it  has  been  ascertained 
that  heat  increases  in  the  proportion  of  one  degree  to  each  hun- 
dred feet.  There  are  now,  in  certain  countries,  mines  whose  pits 
descend  to  a  depth  of  more  than  2000  feet ;  in  a  country  in 
Europe  called  Bohemia,  there  is  one,  now  abandoned,  which  pen- 
etrates 3000  feet.  At  a  depth  of  two  miles,  the  earth  must  attain 
the  temperature  of  boiling  water,  and  at  20  or  25  miles  depth, 
every  thing,  even  the  hardest  metals,  must  be  in  a  complete  state  of 
fusion.  Finally,  lower  yet,  liquids  must  be  reduced  to  a  gaseous 
state,  and  these  gases  or  vapors,  heated  beyond  all  imagination, 
must  acquire  an  inconceivable  force.  There  then  sometimes  oc- 
cur rapid  movements  of  gaseous  currents,  which,  gUding  beneath 
the  solid  surface  of  the  earth,  agitate  it,  giving  rise  to  earthquakes. 


GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS   ON   THE    CONTINENTS. 


23 


This  surface  is  sometimes  rent  by  the  action  of  these  vapors,  or 
torn  asunder  in  giving  passage  to  the  gas,  which  carries  with  it 
mineral  substances  in  a  state  of  fusion.  There  is  thus  estab- 
Hshed  a  certain  communication  between  the  interior  of  the  earth 
and  its  surface.  The  inflamed  and  liquid  masses  overflow  the 
limits  of  this  yawning  abyss,  foraiing  streams  of  lava,  a  substance 
which  sometimes  requires  more  than  a  year  to  cool,  and  which, 
slowly  descending  towards  the  neighboring  plains,  burns  and  de- 
stroys every  thing  which  it  encounters  in  its  passage.  Shocks  of 
earthquakes,  eruptions  of  volcanoes,  the  rivers  of  lava  issuing 
thence,  —  all  these  astonishing  phenomena  have  at  different  times 
thrown  the  neighboring  population  into  consternation.  There  are 
now  nearly  200  volcanoes  in  motion. 


Volcanoes. 


24  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

The  extraordinary  heat  of  certain  springs  which  bubble  up  in 
different  places,  especially  in  the  mountains,  and  sometimes  in 
the  cold  waters  of  a  river,  is  also  attributed  to  a  central  fire  which 
fills  the  interior  of  our  globe..  These  waters  are  used  both  as 
drinks  and  baths  for  the  healing  of  the  sick.  They  are  called 
thermal  (or  warm)  springs,  and  some  of  them  are  of  so  high  a 
temperature  that  the  heat  of  the  baths  must  be  moderated  in  order 
to  render  them  supportable.  In  certain  places  actual  columns  of 
boiling  water  are  seen  to  burst  from  the  earth,  spouting  up  at  in- 
tervals, with  a  deafening  report,  to  a  height  of  120  or  130  feet. 
Such  are  the  Geysers  of  Iceland^  which  thus  shoot  upwards  near 
a  volcano  in  the  heart  of  a  great  island  north-west  of  the  Eu-v 
ropean  continent  ? 

As  we  rise  above  the  surface  of  the  continents,  we  perceive,  on 
the  contraiy,  that  the  heat  diminishes.  Beyond  a  certain  elevation 
the  water  is  never  in  a  liquid  state,  and  snow  is  perpetual.  The 
limit  of  these  eternal  snows  varies  with  the  latitude.  In  Europe 
it  is  at  a  height  of  about  8000  feet.  Under  the .  equator,  in  the 
vast  chain  of  the  Andes,  which  traverses  all  America,  this  limit 
is  at  a  height  of  about  15,000  feet;  while  as  we  advance  towards 
the  north  it  gradually  diminishes,  and  finally  we  arrive  at  regions 
where  the  cold  is  so  continuous  that  water  is  always  frozen  even 
at  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  temperature  and  other  physical  circumstances  exercise  a 
marked  influence  upon  the  organized  beings  that  inhabit  the  sur- 
face of  the  continents.  Tlius  each  zone  has  its  special  production 
of  plants  and  animals.  This  distribution,  however,  is  most  ap- 
parent in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  In  the  frigid  countries,  plants 
are  represented  by  species  of  the  most  simple  organization  — 
mosses,  lichensy  gooseberries  and  other  berry-bearing  shrubs, 
birches,  and  dwarf  tpillows,  which  never  exceed  one  or  two  feet  in 
height.  In  proportion,  on  the  contrary,  as  we  approach  the  trop- 
ics, vegetation  becomes  more  rich  and  varied;  and  wherever 
moisture  and  heat  are  favombly  combined,  the  power  of  vege- 
tation attains  its  utmost  degree  of  perfection.  Thus,  in  South 
America,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes,  plants  develop  with 
astonishing  rapidity,  and  the  virgin  forests  of  those  countries  pre- 
sent a  vegetation  of  a  vigor   elsewhere   unknown.      Vegetable 


GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS   ON   THE    CONTINENTS.  25 

growth  is  generally  most  active  where  rain  is  most  abundant, 
whilst  from  a  complete  absence  of  water  there  inevitably  results 
a  corresponding  absence  of  vegetation. 

After  it  has  been  said  that  in  proportion  as  we  rise  the  tem- 
perature sinks,  you  will  not  be  astonished  to  learn  that  in  ascend- 
ing the  sides  of  tropical  mountains  we  may  discover,  successively, 
plants  appertaining  to  almost  all  latitudes,  from  the  palm  trees, 
or  magnificent  flowers  which  grow  in  the  plains  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountains,  to  the  mosses  and  polar  lichens  which  cling  to 
their  lofty  summits  in  the  neighborhood  of  eternal  snows.  Thus, 
in  ascending  the  Andes,  the  traveller  may  in  one  day  observe  all 
the  phases  of  vegetation  which  he  would  discover  in  traversing 
thousands  of  miles  of  level  surface  in  a  northerly  direction. 

Animals  are  not  as  dependent  as  vegetables  on  the  physical 
circumstances  by  which  they  are  surrounded.  They  can  survive 
a  transportation  from  one  zone  or  latitude  to  another,  with  the 
exception,  perhaps,  of  a  few  delicate  species  accustomed  to  the 
heat  of  the  tropics,  and  unable  to  support  any  material  change. 
However,  difference  of  climate  exercises  an  influence  upon  ani- 
mals of  the  same  class,  belonging  to  different  countries.  Thus 
the  lion  exists  both  in  Africa  and  Asia,  but  that  of  Africa  is  the 
largest ;  the  jackal  is  found  likewise  from  the  western  extremity 
of  Africa  to  the  eastern  extremity  of  Asia,  but  it  differs  sensibly 
in  the  two  countries.  Thus  the  climate  and  temperature  of  every 
land  mark  the  animals  which  inhabit  it  with  a  distinct  and  char- 
acteristic stamp. 

Of  all  organized  beings  man  unquestionably  ranks  first  in 
interest  and  importance.  "Man,"  said  the  learned  Humboldt, 
"  is  preeminently  the  citizen  of  the  universe ;  he  can  live  every 
where,  because,  wherever  he  is,  he  is  in  his  natural  sphere."  By 
the  aid  of  that  power  which  constitutes  his  superiority  over  the 
rest  of  nature,  he  combats  physical  circumstances  when  they  op- 
pose him.  In  cold  countries  he  shelters  himself  from  the  ele- 
ments, creates  artificial  heat  by  the  combustion  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter, and  at  the  same  time  clothes  his  body  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
preserve  it  from  the  cold.  In  tropical  countries,  on  the  contrary, 
where  the  heat  is  intense,  he  collects  around  him  every  thing  that 
can  moderate  or  at  least  render  it  supportable.  Man  can  accus- 
3 


26  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

torn  himself  to  mountains  and  plains ;  he  can  live  equally  well  on 
a  level  with  the  sea  and  some  thousands  of  feet  above  it. 

But  although  man  has  learned  how  to  adapt  himself  to  the  va- 
riations of  place  and  climate,  he  has  not  been  able  to  free  himself 
from  their  influence.  From  cold  to  tropical  countries,  men  are 
observed  to  vary  in  size,  vigor,  complexion,  and  character.  In 
cold  climates  they  are  generally  of  small  stature.  Nature  deny- 
ing them  vegetable  nourishment,  they  are  almost  entirely  sus- 
tained by  animal  substance,  and  their  frames  are  perfectly  habitu- 
ated to  it.  It  is  in  the  temperate  countries  that  man  appears  to 
be  especially  in  his  normal  state.  He  subsists  alike  on  animal 
and  vegetable  matter  ;  his  physical  strength  is  more  fully  devel- 
oped, and  his  intellectual  activity  much  greater  also.  The  man 
of  the  temperate  region  is,  in  reality,  master  of  the  world :  he 
has  always  taken  precedence  of  the  man  of  the  tropics.  Under 
the  torrid  zone  the  color  of  the  skin  has  undergone  a  transforma- 
tion. As  we  pass  from  the  temperate  to  the  hot  countries,  we 
observe  an  almost  imperceptible  transition  from  white  to  black. 
There  the  population  subsist  chiefly  on  vegetables,  and  their 
physical  and  intellectual  activity  is  but  little  developed. 

From  the  observation  of  the  differences  and  analogies  which 
exist  among  men  on  the  surface  of  the  whole  globe,  there  has 
been  established  a  classification  of  the  human  species  into  five 
great  races,  although  it  may  be  well  to  remark  that  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  fix  a  perfect  line  of  demarcation  between  them,  for  there 
are  always  certain  intermediate  populations,  which  seem  to  be- 
long to  several  races,  and  whom  we  are  at  a  loss  m  what  cate- 
gory to  place.  Moreover,  in  establishing  this  classification,  more 
regard  has  been  paid  to  the  formation  of  the  bones  of  the  head 
than  to  the  color  of  the  skin. 

The  first  of  these  races  is  the  Caucasian,  so  called  because  its 
most  perfect  types,  both  of  men  and  women,  are  said  to  be  found 
in  a  chain  of  celebrated  mountains,  called  the  Caucasus,  situated 
on  the  boundaries  of  Europe  and  Asia.  The  appellation  of  white, 
by  which  they  are  commonly  designated,  is  not  perhaps  quite  ac- 
curate ;  for  in  the  very  warm  climes  of  Africa  are  seen  individuals 
of  this  race  who  are  extremely  brown,  and  almost  bl^ck.  This 
class,  of  which  we  form  a  part,  occupy  Europe,  the  north  of  Africa, 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON   THE  CONTINENTS.  27 

the  western  part  of  Asia,  and  the  greater  part  of  America  ;  it  has 
the  regular  form  and  figure  with  which  we  are  sufiiciently  ac- 
quainted. 

The  Mongolian,  or  yellow  race,  inhabit  the  eastern  part  of 
Asia.  They  are  distinguished  by  their  high  cheek  bones,  eyes 
obHquely  set,  thick  lips,  black,  but  fine  hair,  and  thin  beard, 
almost  entirely  confined  to  the  upper  lip.  Their  skin  is  of  a  dark 
yellow,  or  olive  color. 

The  AfricisLn,  or  negro  race,  inhabit  the  centre  of  Africa. 
Their  hair  is  woolly,  crisped,  and  black,  their  nose  flat,  and  skin 
black ;  but  that  which  particularly  characterizes  this  race  is  the 
prominence  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  the  thickness  of  the  lips. 

The  Malay  race,  which  derives  its  name  from  a  peninsula 
situated  at  the  south-east  of  Asia,  (Malacca,)  from  whence  it  has 
been  diffused  to  a  distance,  into  a  part  of  the  islands  of  Oceanica, 
resembles  the  Mongolian  in  color,  but  possesses  some  of  the  phys- 
ical and  intellectual  characteristics  of  the  Caucasian  race. 

The  American  race  is  peculiar  to  the  new  world.  It  is  now 
rapidly  becoming  extinct ;  and  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants 
of  America  are  Europeans,  of  the  white  race,  who  have  been 
established  there  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period  as  colonists,  or 
descendants  of  ancient  colonists.  The  red,  copper  complexion, 
black  hair,  and  thin  beard  of  the  indigenous  Americans  would 
seem  to  ally  them  to  the  Mongolian  race,  if  their  nose  and  other 
features,  as  sharp  as  ours,  and  their  large  and  full  eyes,  did  not 
contradict  the  supposition,  and  correspond  rather  with  the  Eu- 
ropean form.    • 

Independent  of  these  great  races,  we  should  mention  numerous 
tribes  which  cannot  be  exactly  classed  with  any  of  the  races 
above  indicated ;  viz.,  the  Caffres  and  the  Hottentots,  at  the 
south  of  Africa  ;  the  Melanesians  and  Australasians,  in  Oceanica ; 
and  the  Hyperhore' ans,  at  the  north  of  the  old  world,  all  of  whom 
seem  to  combine  the  characteristics  of  the  different  races.  These 
classifications  are  then  rather  useful  than  strict,  and  in  proportion 
as  scientific  researches  multiply,  this  classification  of  races  will 
become  more  difficult  and  less  satisfactory.  In  the  mean  time, 
we  shall  often  find  it  convenient  to  refer  to  them. 


CHAPTER    IV. 
GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  OCEANS. 

The  greater  part  of  the  earth's  surface  is,  as  we  have  ascer- 
tained, occupied  by  the  waters  of  the  ocean.  This  universal  sea, 
which  surrounds  all  the  continents,  bears  different  names  in  dif- 
ferent places  ;  but  it  is  in  reality  every  where  the  same,  and  we 
propose  to  consider  it  first  in  a  very  general  manner,  reserving 
for  the  following  chapter  a  more  minute  description  of  each  of 
the  five  great  oceans,  into  which  it  is  subdivided. 

The  oceans  are  every  where  in  communication  with  each  other, 
and  every  where  on  a  level.  Certain  inland  seas,  however, 
whose  communication  with  other  seas  is  interrupted  by  islands  or 
narrow  straits,  have  a  somewhat  higher  level.  Thus  the  sea 
which  separates  Africa  from  Asia  is,  near  the  Isthmus  of  Suez, 
27  feet  and  a  half  more  elevated  than  that  situated  beyond  this 
isthmus.  Another  inland  sea,  at  the  north  of  Europe  (the  Baltic) 
is  8  feet  more  elevated  than  the  rest  of  the  oceans. 

Tides.  —  There  is  likewise  a  periodical  change  of  level  on  the 
surface  of  all  open  seas.  This  change  of  level  constitutes  the 
phenomena  of  the  tides.  The  attraction  of  the  moon  raises  the 
water  during  six  hours  every  day,  causing  a  movement  of  eleva- 
tion, or  a  flax,  particularly  perceptible  on  the  coasts  and  in  sea- 
ports ;  then,  for  six  alternate  hours,  an  abatement,  a  return  to  its 
level,  or  reflux.  And  as  the  moon  in  its  motion  around  the  eailh 
is  sometimes  nearer  and  sometimes  more  remote,  when  its  prox- 
imity is  greatest,  the  attraction  is  most  powerful,  and  the  tides  rise 
highest.  Moreover,  the  sun,  although  at  an  infinitely  greater 
distance,  exercises  a  sensible  influence  upon  our  globe :  accord- 
ingly, when  the  three  planets  appear  on  a  straight  line,  the  tides 
attain  their  extreme  point  of  elevation,  which  necessarily  occurs 
twice  a  year,  in  the  spring  and  autumn.     The  tide,  however,  does 

(28) 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  OCEANS.      29 

not  return  regularly  at  the  same  hours  every  day,  but  the  two 
tides  arrive  at  their  height  50  minutes  later  than  on  the  preceding 
day.  This  delay  is  explained  by  the  fact,  that  the  moon,  which  is 
the  principal  cause  of  the  tides,  each  day  delays  its  rising  50 
minutes.  The  tides  are  inconsiderable  in  the  open  ocean,  and  of 
no  force  in  the  small  inland  seas ;  while  on  certain  coasts,  and  in 
certain  narrow  seas,  they  rise  even  to  a  height  of  60  or  70  feet 
The  tides  render  various  services  to  man  :  on  the  low  coasts  he 
avails  himself  of  them  to  force  the  water  of  the  sea  into  ditches, 
where  it  evaporates  and  leaves  a  deposit  of  salt.  There  are  a 
great  number  of  ports  which  can  only  be  entered  at  high  tide,  be- 
cause the  channel  is  shallow :  without  the  aid  of  the  flux,  vessels 
could  not  ascend  the  current  of  rivers.  In  many  harbors  ad- 
vantage is  taken  of  the  low  tide  for  carrying  on  certain  kinds 
of  shell  fishery. 

Waves.  —  The  atmospheric  currents,  or  winds,  also  create 
changes  of  level,  or  waves.  The  highest  seldom  exceed  33  feet ; 
but  to  this  should  be  added  the  depth  of  the  watery  valley  which 
separates  each  wave  from  the  succeeding  one.  However,  the 
most  violent  waves  only  agitate  the  surface  of  the  ocean  :  at  a 
depth  of  100  feet  the  water  remains  calm,  in  spite  of  the  most 
boisterous  winds. 

Depth  of  the  Sea.  ^--  It  is  very  difficult  to  ascertain  the  depth 
of  the  sea.  In  many  places,  its  bottom  has  not  been  reached  by 
any  experiments  of  sounding.  In  the  tropical  seas,  depths  have 
been  attained  exceeding  24,660  feet ;  that  is,  about  57  times  the 
height  of  the  cathedral  of  Strasburg,  the  highest  structure  in  the 
world  next  to  the  pyramids  of  Egypt.  There  are,  then,  prob- 
ably, at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  valleys  and  hills,  inequalities  of 
land  as  considerable  as  on  the  sui-face  of  the  continents. 

When  the  summits  of  submarine  mountains  rise  above  the  sea, 
they  frequently  form  chains  of  islands,  whose  direction  clearly 
indicates  that  of  the  submerged  mountains  of  which  they  form  a 
part.  A  glance  at  a  map  of  the  world  will  enable  you  to  apply 
this  observation  to  numerous  clusters  of  islands  which  are  found 
east  of  Asia,  for  instance,  and  all  of  which  appear  to  be  a  con- 
tinuation of  chains  of  mountains  on  the  continent.  If,  on  the 
contrary,  submarine  mountains  are  not  high  enough  to  appear 
3* 


30 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


above  the  water,  they  form  shoals,  which  sometimes  extend  be- 
neath the  waves  for  a  considerable  distance.  One,  for  example, 
stretches  the  whole  length  of  Oceanica,  upon  which  a  great 
number  of  vessels  have  been  ^vi-ecked.  These  rocks  are  often 
level  with  the  water,  and  form  ledges  and  reefs,  on  which  the 
waves  break  with  fury,  serving  as  a  warning  to  mariners. 

The  bottom  of  the  sea  would,  doubtless,  present  a  very  curious 
spectacle;  but  it  is  almost  completely  hidden  from  our  view. 
Divers  cannot  descend  to  a  depth  of  more  than  100  feet,  even 
with  the  diving  bell  invented  by  Halley,  and  by  the  aid  of  which 
they  can  remain  under  water  more  than  an  hour ;  while  without 
this,  ordinary  divers  can  continue  under  water  only  2  minutes, 
notwithstanding  the  feats  related  of  them. 


Diving  Bell. 


Saltness  op  the  Sea.  —  The  waters  of  the  sea  hold  in  solu- 
tion numerous  mineral  substances,  and  especially  a  great  quan- 
tity of  salt.  They  are  consequently  both  salt  and  bitter,  and 
cannot  be  swallowed  without  nausea.  Mariners,  although  navi- 
gating the  open  sea,  are  thus  liable  to  die  of  thirst,  if  their  sup- 
ply of  fresh  water  becomes  exhausted.  A  method  htis  been 
discovered  of  rendering  salt  water  potable  by  distillation ;  but  this 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS   ON  THE  OCEANS.  81 

Operation  requires  too  much  labor  and  fuel  to  be  practised  on  a 
great  scale. 

This  saltness  does  not  prevent  the  water  of  the  sea  from  cor- 
rupting. If  undisturbed  for  fifteen  or  twenty  days,  it  would 
become  so  fetid  as  to  make  it  fatal  to  inhale  its  odor.  It  is  im- 
possible to  exist  long  in  the  hold  of  a  vessel  containing  stagnant 
water.  Therefore,  were  it  not  for  its  temp(?sts  and  various  mo- 
tions, the  ocean  must  become  decomposed  and  corrupt.  The  sea 
is  not  every  where  equally  salt :  its  saltness  is  nowhere  greater 
than  under  the  poles  and  at  the  equator ;  and  the  reason  of  this  is, 
that  the  salt  water  being  much  more  heavy  and  dense  than  the 
fresh  water,  neither  evaporates  nor  freezes.  Accordingly,  in  the 
polar  seas,  the  fresh  portion  of  the  water  alone  congealing,  trans- 
fers its  salt  to  the  neighboring  portions,  and  the  saltness  of  the 
latter  is  proportionally  augmented.  In  like  manner,  in  the  trop- 
ical seas,  the  portions  of  w^ater  which  evaporate  beneath  the  action 
of  a  burning  sun  abandon  their  salt  to  the  lower  beds  of  water, 
thereby  rendering  them  more  briny.  It  is  almost  impossible  to 
account  with  any  certainty  for  the  saltness  of  the  sea.  Perhaps 
it  proceeds  simply  from  abundant  salt  mines  existing  at  the 
bottom  of  the  ocea«. 

Evaporation  op  the  Sea.  —  The  evaporation  of  the  waters 
of  the  sea,  and  their  transformation  into  rain,  snow,  or  ice,  is  one 
of  the  phenomena  in  which  the  wisdom  and  providence  of  the 
Creator  are  most  signally  manifested.  When  we  consider  the 
vast  and  innumerable  rivers  which  are  unceasingly  bearing  their 
enormous  tribute  to  the  ocean,  it  seems  as  if  the  basin  of  the  sea 
must  finally  overflow  and  devastate  its  shores.  God  has,  how- 
ever, in  this  as  in  every  other  contingency,  admirably  provided 
for  mankind.  The  heat  of  the  sun  incessantly  distils  from  the 
surface  of  seas  or  lakes  quantities  of  vapors  proportionable  to  the 
body  of  water  conveyed  into  them  by  the  rivers.  These  vapors 
diffuse  a  beneficent  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  ;  dissolving  in 
dew  during  the  coolness  of  night,  they  refresh  the  plants  and  the 
earth,  and,  collected  in  small  drops  and  clouds,  descend  in  the 
form  of  rain  to  nourish  the  springs,  revivify  vegetation,  and  spread 
fertility.  Even  the  eternal  snows  and  glaciers  were  designed  by 
the  Creator  to  render  precious  services  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 


32  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

neighboring  plains.  Instead  of  rushing  impetuously  from  the 
mountain  tops,  inundating  and  laying  waste  the  countries  which 
they  are  designed  to  fertilize,  the  water,  which  descends  upon  the 
lofty  summits  in  the  form  of  snow  and  rain,  is  congealed  by  the 
cold,  and  remains  suspended  in  frozen  masses  on  the  sides  of  the 
mountains ;  gradually  dissolving,  and  furnishing  abundant  water 
during  the  summer,  precisely  at  the  period  when  the  heat  threat- 
ens to  dry  up  the  springs.  These  vapors,  suddenly  consolidated 
by  currents  of  cold  air,  may  indeed  be  transformed  into  devas- 
tating hail,  and  these  beneficent  reservoirs  of  snow  and  ice,  too 
rapidly  dissolving,  occasion  disastrous  inundations  —  calamities 
with  which  the  Almighty  sometimes  judges  proper  to  visit  a  cor- 
rupt world ;  but  we  know  that  he  does  not  willingly  afflict  the 
children  of  men,  and  that  "  his  anger  endureth  but  a  moment :  in 
his  favor  is  life."     Ps.  xxx.,  5. 

Temperature  of  the  Sea.  —  The  temperature  of  the  sea 
varies  with  its  situation  and  depth.  It  is  generally  more  unifonn 
than  that  of  the  continents,  its  facility  of  motion  preventing  any 
very  material  variations.  Although  subject  to  the  influence  of 
the  seasons,  it  is  much  less  affected  by  them  than  the  atmosphere ; 
thus  in  summer  the  sea  cools  the  air  of  the  continent,  and  in 
winter  modifies  its  severity.  The  proximity  of  the  sea  then  ren- 
ders the  climate  of  the  coasts  mild  and  uniform. 

Between  the  tropics,  the  temperature  of  the  sea  diminishes 
with  its  depth.  After  reaching  a  certain  depth,  it  is  of  an  equal 
temperature,  a  few  degrees  above  freezing  point.  In  the  polar 
seas,  on  the  contrary,  the  water  is  coldest  on  the  surface ;  inso- 
much that  it  is  covered  with  vast  fields  of  ice,  which,  like  two 
white  cupolas,  crown  the  two  extremities  of  our  planet. 

Currents  of  the  Sea.  —  The  differences  of  temperature, 
of  which  we  have  spoken,  are  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the 
currents  which  are  produced  in  the  ocean.  In  the  tropical  zone, 
the  motion  of  the  earth  occasions  one  of  them  which  flows 
from  east  to  west,  and  bears  the  name  of  the  equatorial  cur- 
rent. The  configuration  of  islands  and  coasts  oflen  modify 
it  extremely.  Thus,  commencing  on  the  coasts  of  Africa,  this 
current,  after  arriving  on  the  eastern  coast  of  South  America, 
4iyides  into  two  branches,  one  of  which  directs  its  course  south- 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  OCEANS. 


33 


westerly,  and  makes  the  circuit  of  America ;  while  the  other, 
skirting  at  the  north-west  the  coasts  of  North  America,  makes 
the  circuit  of  the  vast  inland  sea  which  separates  the  two 
Americas,  issues  thence  with  great  rapidity,  and  shapes  its  course 
towards  the  coasts  of  Africa  and  the  north  of  Europe,  where  it 
forms,  near  a  countiy  called  Norway,  a  terrible  whirlpool,  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Maelstrom^  in  which  the  waters  revolve  con- 
tinually, making  a  circuit  of  many  leagues,  and  afterwards  break- 
ing on  the  rocks. 

There  ai-e,  besides,  many  other  important  currents.  There  is 
generally  an  upper  current,  which  conveys  to  the  polar  seas  the 
wai-m  water  of  the  tropics,  and  an  under  current,  bearing  from 
the  poles  to  the  equator  the  cold  and  heavier  water  of  the  polar 
regions.  These  currents  are,  however,  modified  in  their  prog- 
ress both  by  the  winds  and  by  the  configuration  of  land  and  sea. 

Waterspouts.  —  One  of  the   most   terrible   and  wonderful 


Waterspout. 

phenomena  which  occur  on  the  surface  of  oceans  is  the  pro- 
duction oi'  waterspouts.  A  volume  of  water,  of  greater  or  less 
height,  rises  above  the  surface  of  the  sea.     This  movable  column 


o-i  THE   GEOGRAPHY   OF   NATURE. 

turns  upon  itself,  traversing  immense  distances  with  incredible 
rapidity.  A  cannon  or  musket  shot  is  sometimes  sufficient  to 
dissolve  it.  Science  has  not  yet  furnished  any  precise  explana- 
tion of  this  singular  movement,  comprehending  such  a  consid- 
erable body  of  water. 

Animated  Nature  at  the  Bottom  of  the  Sea. —  Both 
animals  and  vegetables,  of  infinite  variety,  are  found  in  the  ocean  ; 
and  life  is  there,  perhaps,  more  variously  represented  than  on  the 
continents.  The  seas,  then,  have  also  their  classified  inhabitants ; 
and,  moreover,  a  kind  of  analogy  exists  between  the  classifica- 
tion of  marine  and  terrestrial  animals.  In  the  water,  however, 
the  conditions  of  life  are  quite  the  reverse  of  those  on  the  land. 
In  the  latter  the  animal  must  live  in  a  gaseous  fluid  —  air ;  in  the 
former,  in  a  liquid  fluid  —  water.  It  seems  as  if  divine  wisdom 
had  taken  a  type  or  model  for  each,  and  had  suitably  quahfied  it, 
whether  for  terrestrial  or  aquatic  life. 

One  of  the  elements  of  which  the  air  is  composed  is  indispen- 
sable to  life  ;  the  terrestrial  animal  is  endowed  with  a  peculiar 
organ  for  containing  this  air,  in  order  that  the  vital  element  may 
be  extracted  from  it,  viz.,  the  lungs.  The  marine  animal  has  an 
analogous  organ,  the  gill,  which  is  constantly  in  contact  with  the 
water,  and  in  this  perpetual  contact  absorbs  the  small  quantities 
of  atmospheric  air  dissolved  in  the  liquid,  appropriating  to  itself 
the  vital  substance.  Every  where  in  nature  do  we  find  these  laws 
of  harmony,  which  the  Creator  seems,  as  it  were,  to  have  imposed 
upon  himself,  in  accordance  with  which,  however,  he  has  infinite- 
ly varied  the  productions  of  his  omnipotence  and  wisdom.  Thus 
throughout  the  animated  kingdom  there  exists  a  perfect  and  har- 
monious bond. 

In  the  water,  as  on  land,  we  find  mammals,  (animals  which 
nurse  their  young.)  The  representatives  of  this  class  among 
marine  animals  are  the  largest  in  the  ocean  —  the  whale,  the  cach- 
alot, seals,  dolphins,  &c. 

The  fish  constitutes  the  most  perfect  type  of  the  aquatic  ani- 
mal. Its  form  and  dimensions  are  of  infinite  variety,  but  the 
organization  most  adapted  to  its  life  in  the  water  is  always  pre- 
served. 

Sea  tortoises,  numerous  species  of  which  inhabit  the  seas  of 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  OCEANS.      85 

tropical  countries,  are,  in  the  ocean,  the  principal  representatives 
of  the  large  class  of  keptiles. 

Birds,  even,  although  especially  destined  for  flight,  are  some- 
times so  organized  that  their  life  is  naturally  aquatic.  Grebes 
and  herons,  for  example,  swim  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  or 
dive  beneath,  and  can  exist  during  long  intervals  in  the  liquid 
element. 

The  numerous  branch  of  the  articulate  animals  is  largely  rep- 
resented in  the  water. 

The  Crustacea  are  essentially  aquatic,  such  as  crabs,  lobsters,  &c. 

The  mollusks  represented  on  the  continents  by  the  snail,  &c., 
are  found  in  innumerable,  varieties  in  all  seas.  All  the  animals 
known  by  the  name  of  shell  Jish  belong  to  this  branch. 

In  the  depths  of  ocean  nature  conceals  those  strange  cre- 
ations yet  ill  defined  by  science,  and  which  seem  to  serve  as 
intermediates  between  the  two  great  classes  of  animal  and  vege- 
table organization  ;  these  equivocal  beings  are  called-  zoophytes, 
(or  animal  plants.)  The  polypi  and  sponges  are  examples  of 
this  class,  of  which,  as  of  all  the  preceding  animals,  we  shall  speak 
more  particularly  in  the  following  chapters. 

We  have  discovered  that  there  are  mountains  and  valleys  at 
the  bottom  of  the  sea,  as  well  as  on  the  surface  of  the  continents. 
As  on  the  surface  of  our  valleys  and  mountains,  there  also  are 
found  life  and  motion.  Marine  plants,  such  as  the  algce  or  fuci, 
there  form  actual  forests.  That  which  is  called  lamina,  for  exam- 
ple, often  extends  its  ramifications,  proceeding  from  one  stalk,  a 
quarter  of  a  league  in  distance.  Among  these  submerged  branches, 
animals  of  endless  varieties  find  their  existence,  there  adhere, 
live,  and  die,  and  their  accumulated  remains  furnish  new  elements 
for  vegetable  life,  on  which  successive  generations  are  born  and 
die.  Fish  glide  amid  the  foliage  of  these  marine  forests  as  birds 
sport  in  their  native  groves.  On  the  bottom  of  the  sea  exist  and 
creep  innumerable  shell  fish,  which,  although  destined  to  live  al- 
ways in  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  present,  on  the  exterior  of  their 
stony  covering,  colors  whose  brilliancy  and  vividness  are  nowhere 
else  encountered.  To  the  sides  of  submarine  rocks  are  attached 
infinite  multitudes  of  polypi,  who  increase,  extend,  and  ramify  like 
the  mosses  and  lichens  which  cling  to  the  rocks  of  our  terrestrial 


36  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

mountains.  Every  where  are  found  life  and  motion,  every  where 
innumerable  beings,  organized  with  perfect  wisdom  for  the  pur- 
pose (often  unknown  to  us)  assigned  them  by  the  Creator. 

In  the  ocean,  moreover,  exist  countless  multitudes  of  beings  of 
such  minute  dimensions  as  to  escape  our  usual  means  of  appreci- 
ation. "  Microscopic  infusoria  present  in  their  whole  dimensions," 
says  M.  Humboldt,  "  y  b\ny  of  a  millemetre,"  or,  in  other  words,  as 
many  of  these  animalcula  as  there  ai-e  men  upon  the  face  of  the 
earth  would  hardly  compose  a  body  of  the  size  of  a  pin's  head. 
And  yet  there  ai*e  rocks,  extending  more  than  a  quarter  of  a 
league  in  every  direction,  composed  entirely  of  their  petrified  and 
accumulated  remains.  The  human  mind  is  confounded  when  it 
seeks  to  form  an  idea  of  the  incredible  fruitfuhiess  of  creation. 

These  inexpressibly  little  beings  sometimes  live  on  the  bottom 
of  the  sea,  and  sometimes  on  its  surface.  Among  them  are 
monads,  which  present  very  remarkable  luminous  properties. 
Sometimes  myriads  of  them  are  seen  floating  on  the  water,  and, 
fluctuating  with  the  waves,  manifest  their  presence,  at  a  distance, 
by  the  phenomenon  of  phosphorescence.  The  sea  is  then,  in  the 
middle  of  a  dark  night,  illuminated  far  and  wide.  Each  wave, 
unrolling,  reveals  a  sheet  of  silvery  light,  and  the  conflicting  bil- 
lows create  transient  illuminations,  which  appear  and  disappear, 
producing  rapid  alternations  of  light  and  darkness.  The  water 
thus  seems  in  sti-ange  contrast  with  its  habitual  character  to  en- 
gender light. 

Thus,  the  more  we  study  nature,  the  more  are  we  impressed 
with  the  multiplicity  of  its  resources  and  the  infinite  variety  of  its 
productions,  and  are  led  to  exclaim  with  the  prophet  king,  "  O 
Lord,  how  manifold  are  thy  works !  in  wisdom  hast  thou  made 
them  all :  the  earth  is  full  of  thy  riches." 


CHAPTER  V. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  OCEANS. 

Section  1.  The  Northern  Ocean. —  A  great  portion  of 
this  ocean,  which  lies  north  of  the  old  and  new  world,  is  covered 
with  ice,  which  sometimes  forms  vast  unbroken  fields,  over  which 


Scene  in  the  Northern  Ocean. 


4 


(37) 


38  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

a  carriage  might  roll  for  a  length  of  thirty  or  forty  leagues  in  a 
straight  line.  Icebergs  of  every  form  are  sometimes  seen  float- 
ing on  the  surface  of  the  water,  representing  houses,  towers,  or 
the  spires  of  a  cathedral,  a  collision  with  which  would  instantly 
dash  the  strongest  built  vessel  to  pieces.  These  blue,  transparent, 
floating  bodies  of  ice,  are  sometimes  driven  by  the  currents  even 
into  the  temperate  seas,  where  they  speedily  dissolve,  not,  how- 
ever, without  endangering  ships  which  unexpectedly  encounter 
them. 

During  the  heat  of  summer  the  upper  portions  melt,  and  the 
waters  descend  from  their  summits,  forming  immense  cascades  in 
the  sea.  The  dazzling  whiteness  of  the  spray  presents  an  admi- 
rable contrast  to  the  azure  blue  of  the  congealed  and  floating 
mass. 

These  icy  plains  usually  break  up  and  disperse  in  the  month 
of  June.  Then  commences  the  heat  of  a  burning  summer,  which 
lasts  several  weeks,  during  which  the  sun  remains  constantly 
above  the  horizon  without  setting.  Advantage  is  taken  of  this 
short  summer  to  pursue  the  whales  even  into  the  midst  of  these 
immense  islands  of  ice.  But  towards  the  end  of  August,  snow 
begins  to  fall,  the  cold  resumes  its  empire,  and  the  moisture  of 
the  atmosphere  congeals  in  the  form  of  little  icy  needles,  which 
seem  to  pierce  the  skin  ;  soon  a  uniform  bed  of  ice  again  covers 
the  sea ;  winter  then  reigns  in  all  its  horror,  and  the  gloomy  dark- 
ness of  the  night,  which  continues  many  months,  is  only  dissipat- 
ed by  the  brilliant  light  of  the  Aurora  Boi^ealis,  which,  of  very 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  polar  countries,  sometimes  diffuses  its 
light  even  in  our  firmament,  and  always  affords  one  of  the  finest 
spectacles  in  creation. 

During  these  long  and  terrible  winters,  the  unfortunate  inhab- 
itants of  the  islands  or  coasts  washed  by  the  Northern  Sea  remain 
immured  and  crowded  together  in  their  huts,  the  smallest  aper- 
tures of  which  they  carefully  close.  Their  provisions,  although 
kept  in  a  place  where  a  steady  fire  is  maintained,  are  oflen  frozen 
to  such  a  degree  that  they  can  only  be  broken  by  an  axe. 

And  yet  the  providence  of  God  has  not  left  itself  without  wit- 
ness among  the  inhabitants  of  these  icy  regions.  Trees  cannot 
grow  in  these  countries,  the  willows  even  attaining  only  a  few 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  OCEANS. 


39 


feet  in  height ;  but  the  currents  of  the  ocean  wash  upon  these 
coasts,  in  abundance,  trees  which  the  avalanches  of  snow  have 
during  the  spring  uprooted  in  milder  countries  and  swept  into  the 
sea.  Moreover,  the  terrible  white  hear,  which  roams  in  these 
latitudes,  furnishes  a  fur  which  affords  an  invaluable  protection 
against  the  cold.      In  the  month  of  May  the  sun   reappears 


WJiite  Bear. 

above  the  horizon,  and  as  the  cold  abates  the  inhabitants  issue 
from  their  snow  huts  to  profit  by  the  abundant  resources  afforded 
them  in  the  fishery  and  chase. 

Legions  of  geese,  ducks,  and  plover  alight  every  summer  upon 
the  shores  of  these  frozen  regions,  and  together  with  the  eider 
duck,  which  furnishes  the  precious  eider  down,  rendered  so  profit- 
able by  our  luxury,  become  to  the  inhabitants  of  many  of  these 
countries  the  object  of  a  very  lucrative  pursuit. 

But  the  sea  itself  is  extraordinarily  productive.  From  the 
remotest  depths  of  the  frozen  sea  issue  those  immense  legions  or 


L 


40 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 


shoals  of  herring,  which,  after  being  diffused  like  a  veritable 
manna  along  the  coasts  of  Europe  and  America,  return  to  the  icy 
poles  to  repair  the  losses  which  they  have  experienced,  and 
recruit  their  forces  for  the  following  year. 

But  the  animal  which  a  kind  Providence  seems  to  have  created 
expressly  to  constitute  the  wealth  and  indispensable  resource  of 
the  Esquimaux  population,  dispersed  on  these  desolate  shores  is  the 
seal)  or  sea  calf.    The  seal  is  a  mammal  of  about  three  or  four  feet 


W^^^^- 


Seal 


in  length,  every  part  of  which  is  useful  to  the  Esquimaux.  The 
flesh  serves  to  nourish  them,  the  fur  and  skin  to  clothe  them,  or 
cover  their  huts  and  canoes,  and  the  fat  to  feed  the  lamps  which 
give  them  light,  warm  their  dwellings,  and  cook  their  food,  or, 
converted  into  oil  and  sold  to  the  European  merchants,  procures 


Walrtis. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  OCEANS.  41 

them  money  for  buying  the  different  commodities  which  they 
require.  The  sea  lion  is  a  more  rare  species  of  seal,  about  15 
feet  in  length.  The  morses,  or  walrus,  even  larger  yet,  have  a 
head  of  revolting  ugliness  ;  their  upper  jaw  is  provided  with  two 
long,  hanging  tusks,  with  which,  they  cling  to  the  ice  or  strike 
their  enemies.  They  are  about  20  feet  in  length.  Their  tusks 
yield  a  hard  and  white  substance,  called  ivory,  which  may  be  pol- 
ished and  carved  with  much  more  facility  than  bone,  and  of  which 
valuable  statues  and  ornaments  of  every  description  are  manu- 
factured. The  best  ivory,  however,  is  that  furnished  by  the  ele- 
phant, a  large  animal  of  which  we  shall  speak  hereafter. 

Finally,  among  the  ceta'cea  (the  largest  of  the  mammals)  should 
be  mentioned  the  whale,  so  much  sought  on  account  of  its  abun- 
dant fat,  from  which  is  extracted  an  oil  very  useful  in  the  arts, 
and  for  the  sake  of  its  whalebone,  which  serves  for  a  multi- 
tude of  uses,  among  others,  to  fonn  the  frames  of  umbrellas  and 
parasols. 

Unfortunately  the  whales  will  have  soon  almost  entirely  disap- 
peared from  the  frozen  sea,  owing  to  the  assiduous  pursuit  which 
has  been  made  for  them  within  three  centuries.  This  enormous 
animal,  the  largest  of  all  that  exist,  is  from  60  to  120  feet  in 
length,  and  from  20  to  30  in  thickness. 


Whale. 


42  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

Another  remarkable  cetaceous  animal,  which  inhabits  this 
Northern  Sea,  is  the  narwhal,  from  18  to  20  feet  in  length,  whose 
head  is  armed  with  a  long,  horizontal  tusk,  very  hard  and  pointed, 


•"^^O. 


NarwMl. 

with  which  this  animal  transfixes  its  enemies,  and  even  the  whale. 
These  tusks,  which  sometimes  attain  even  10  feet  in  length,  fur- 
nish a  valuable  ivory.  Each  animal  has  two  of  these  defences ; 
but  it  seems  that  only  one  of  them  ever  attains  its  perfect  devel- 
opment. 

Sect.  2.  The  Southern  Ocean.  —  The  Southern  Ocean 
is  even  colder  and  more  obstructed  by  ice  than  the  preceding. 
The  summer,  in  these  regions,  commences  towards  the  middle  of 
November;  but  the  heat,  still  feeble,  produces  scarcely  any  appar- 
ent effect  upoit  the  ice,  accumulated  during  nine  months  of  severe 
cold.  In  December  the  snow  melts  in  the  sun,  and  bodies  of  ice, 
becoming  detached  from  the  shores,  are  precipitated  with  a  tre- 
mendous crash  into  the  sea.  In  January  the  heat  becomes  very 
powerful,  and  the  sea  smokes,  (as  sailors  say,)  that  is,  forms  va- 
pors dangerous  to  navigators.  Towards  the  end  of  the  same 
month  snow  descends  in  furious  whirlwinds.  Fields  of  ice  form 
on  all  sides,  birds  and  seals  depart  in  search  of  a  milder  cli- 
mate, and  until  the  following  summer  a  deathlike  silence  reigns, 
only  interrupted  from  time  to  time  by  the  roaring  of  the  tem- 
pest. 

God  does  not  seem  to  have  designed  that  such  gloomy  regions 
should  become  the  abode  of  man.  He  has  created  there  only  a 
few  small  islands,  scarcely  known,  and  which  would  be  absolutely 
unimportant  had  they  not,  within  a  few  years,  been  frequented 


DESCRIPTION  OP  THE  OCEANS.  43 

by  certain  whalers  and  seal  hunters,  who  failed  to  derive  sufficient 
profit  from  the  Northern  Frozen  Sea.  All  these  lands  present  a 
spectacle  of  frightful  desolation.  Mosses  can  scarcely  grow 
there,  and  in  the  least  severe  regions  a  few  miserable  dwarf 
trees.  Man  has  never  dreamed  of  establishing  himself  among 
them,  and  they  have  been  abandoned  to  the  seals  and  birds,  such 
as  penguins,  mauchots,  petrels,  and  other  sea  birds,  which,  during 
the  short  summer  months,  occupy  these  deserted  shores,  and  de- 
vote themselves  to  the  cai-es  which  the  preservation  of  theu'  race 
demands. 

Sect.  3.  The  Atlantic  Ocean.  —  The  Atlantic  Ocean 
lies  west  of  Europe  and  Africa,  between  the  old  and  new  world. 
It  is  separated  by  no  very  precise  limits  from  the  two  Frozen  Seas. 
Navigation  on  this  sea,  which  is  very  much  frequented,  is  facili- 
tated by  the  action  of  winds  and  regular  currents,  with  which  it 
is  important  to  be  well  acquainted  ;  for  instance  the  trade  wind, 
which,  north  and  south  of  the  equator,  blows  with  force  from 
cast  to  west,  and  the  great  equatorial  current,  which,  like  an 
immense  river  of  running  water,  flows  from  the  coasts  of  Africa 
even  to  those  of  the  new  world ;  it  there  makes  the  circuit  of 
the  vast  basin  of  water  formed  by  the  sea,  and  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  issues  thence  like  a  great  stream 
of  warm  water,  with  extraordinary  force  and  rapidity,  and  returns 
to  the  coasts  of  Europe  and  Africa,  after  being  broken  into 
many  smaller  currents. 

It  was  this  current,  generally  known  by  the  name  of  the  Gidf 
Stream,  which  washed  upon  the  coasts  of  the  Azores  Islands,  in 
the  centre  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  body  of  an  American  of  a 
copper-colored  skin,  and  various  fragments  of  canoes ;  thus  afford- 
ing Christopher  Columbus  a  final  proof  tliat  by  pursuing  a  west- 
erly course  he  should  discover  new  lands. 

No  ocean  has  such  powerful  tides  as  the  Atlantic,  especially  at 
the  north  of  America  and  at  the  west  of  Europe. 

The  Atlantic  Ocean  nourishes  in  its  depths  many  marine 
plants.  On  almost  all  the  coasts  are  found  varec  or  fucus^lengihy 
plants  which  the  tempests  tear  up  from  the  bed  of  the  ocean 
where  they  have  grown,  and  cast  upon  the  shores.     They  are 


44 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


used  to  enrich  the  soil,  and  from  them  is  obtained  iodine,  a  sub-f 
stance  which  is  useful  in  many  diseases ;  they  are  also  burned, 
and  soda  is  made  of  the  ashes,  which  is  employed  ia  the  manu- 


Ftici. 

facture  of  soap.  Other  plants  of  this  species  furnish,  when  dried, 
a  coarse  but  strong  thread.  There  are  some  kinds  which  may 
be  eaten,  and  from  which  sugar  may  be  extracted.  The  fucus 
sometimes  forms  vast  fields  on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  which 
retard  the  progress  of  vessels.  One  region  is  cited  in  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  south  of  the  Azores',  in  which  these  plants  form 
immense  banks,  which  are  inhabited  by  myriads  of  marine  ani- 
mals, and  which,  always  verdant,  are  transported  hither  and 
thither  by  the  warm  breezes  that  blow  in  these  latitudes. 

Fishes  are  extremely  numerous  in  this  sea,  especially  in  the 
warm  regions,  where  their  colors  are  much  more  beautiful  and 
diversified.  We  shall  mention  only  those  best  known  :  Herrings^ 
sardines^  and  anchovies,  which  are  of  the  same  species.  The  cod, 
in  the  fishery  of  which  nearly  3000  American  and  European 
vessels  are  annually  employed.  The  sword  Jish,  remarkable 
for  the  long  point  in  the  form  of  a  sword  which  terminates 
its  upper  jaw,  and  affords  it  a  formidable  offensive  weapon. 
The  salmon,  which  supplies  the  inhabitants  of  Northern  Eu- 
rope and  America  with  an  important  article  of  food ;  in  Norway, 
the  fishermen  take  2000  of  them  in  a  day ;  in  a  river  of  Eng- 
land,, a  draught  of  3500  may  be  procured  by  a  single  cast  of  the 
net.     They  ascend   the  rivers  in   order  to   deposit  their  eggs, 


DESCRIPTION   OF   THE   OCEANS. 


45 


28,000  of  which  have  been  counted  in  a  single  female.    The 
torpedoeS)  celebrated  for  the  electric  discharges  which  they  emit 


Torpedo. 

at  the  touch.     TIiq  flying  fish,  which,  in  the  warm  regions,  leaps 
out  of  the  sea,  in  order  to  escape  the  attacks  of  its  enemies.     The 


Flying  Fish. 

flying  cxoccetm,  which  has  the  faculty  of  elevating  itself  a  con- 
siderable distance  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  by  means  of  its 
fins,  which  have  a  strong  resemblance  to  wings.  Of  all  the  in- 
habitants of  the  sea,  this  is  the  most  pursued  and  tormented ;  if  it 
attempts  to  escape  its  maritime  enemies  by  flying  in  the  air,  it 
becomes  the  booty  of  frigates  and  other  birds  of  prey ;  or  if  it 
fall  upon  a  ship's  deck,  the  passengers  or  sailors  hasten  to  kill  it 
for  the  sake  of  its  flesh,  which  is  fat  and  of  an  excellent  flavor. 
The  shark,  the  most  voracious  of  fish,  which  is  sometimes  25  feet 
in  length,  and  has  exceedingly  sharp  teeth,  follows  ships  in  order 
to  devour  immediately  the  dead  bodies  which  are  cast  into  the- 


46 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 


sea,  or  the  living  who  chance  to  fall  into  it.  The  hammer  head, 
which  is  12  feet  in  length,  is  also  very  ravenous,  and  has  a  singu- 
lar head,  in  the  shape  of  a  hammer. 


Shark. 


Among  the  mammals  may  be  named  the  dolphins,  the  largest 
of  which  are  15  feet  in  length,  and  the  porpoises,  5  feet.  Whales 
and  cachalots  have  almost  entirely  disappeared  from  this  sea. 


Dolphin. 

On  the  coasts  of  Europe  and  America,  very  rare  oysters  are 
procured,  and  likewise  lobsters,  the  great  crayfish  of  the  sea.  The 
tortoise  is  the  reptile  most  sought  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean :  in  the 
warm  regions,  the  tortoises  are  as  many  as  G  or  7  feet  in  lengtli, 
and  weigh  as  much  as  8  quintals ;  their  flesh  is  wholesome  and 
juicy ;  of  their  shell  snuff  boxes  and  combs  are  made  ;  there  is  but 
one  species  which  yields  the  shell ;  this  is  the  imbricated  tortoise  ; 
it  is  more  rare  than  all  the  rest,  and  is  only  found  at  10  degrees 
north  and  south  of  the  equator.  The  shell  is  so  much  in  request 
that  they  are  raised  in  parks  ;  the  females  deposit  their  eggs  by 
hundreds  in  the  sand,  leaving  them  to  be  hatched  by  the  sun : 


DESCRIPTION   OF  THE  OCEANS.  47 

these  are  sought  by  sailors  as  an  agreeable  dish.  They  usually 
lay  from  120  to  160  eggs.  Many  sea  birds  are  very  fond  of 
them,  and  destroy  the  greater  portion. 


Tortoise. 

The  Atlantic  Ocean  docs  not  lack  sea  birds.  In  the  cold 
regions  are  ducks,  plungeon,  and  petreh,  sea  swallows,  frigates, 
which  follow  vessels  for  long  distances  ;  and  finally  the  albatross, 
whose  wings  extended  measure  a  length  of  9  feet,  and  which 
fearlessly  wanders  more  than  500  leagues  from  the  coasts ;  this 
is  the  great  enemy  of  flying  fish. 

Sect.  4.  The  Indian  Ocean.  —  The  Indian  Ocean,  situ- 
ated in  the  hottest  portion  of  the  globe,  extends,  between  Africa, 
Asia,  and  Australia ;  it  is  also  called  the  Sea  of  the  Indies,  which 
name  it  has  received  on  account  of  its  vicinity  to  India,  a  very 
celebrated  country  situated  south  of  Asia,  and  of  which  we  shall 
soon  have  occasion  to  speak  more  particularly.  Navigation  is  by 
turns  impeded  and  facilitated  on  this  sea  by  regular  winds,  called 
monsoons,  which  blow  during  six  months  in  one  direction,  and 
six  alternate  months  in  a  contrary  direction.  This  change  is  in 
conformity  with  the  seasons.  From  spring  to  autumn,  the  mon- 
soon blows  from  the  south-west  to  the  north-east ;  from  October 
to  March,  from  the  north-east  to  the  south-west.  Thus  a  ship 
sailing  from  Europe  for  the  coasts  of  India  or  China  would  be 
favored  in  its  progress  by  the  monsoon,  if  it  arrived  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  Africa  in  the  spring  or  in  the  commencement  of 
summer,  and  would  be  retarded  by  it  in  the  other  case. 
I  This  sea,  like  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  is  subject  to  violent  hurri- 
canes, which  cause  terrible  havoc  on  the  coast,  and  founder  many 
ships.  A  little  black  cloud  appears  in  the  sky,  which  rapidly 
increases  in  the  midst  of  thunder  and  lightning,  and  soon  over- 


48 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


casts  all  tlie  azure  portion  of  the  firmament;  the  bewildered 
birds  fly  in  every  direction,  and  make  the  air  resound  with  their 
piercing  cries  ;  the  whole  sky  is  enveloped  in  the  most  profound 
obscurity.     Suddenly  the  hurricane  breaks  loose,  the   dreadful 


Hurricane  at  Sea. 

hissings  of  a  fearful  whirlwind  are  heard,  trees  are  uprooted, 
houses  torn  from  their  foundations,  and  the  boats  on  shore  dashed 
in  pieces  ;  enormous  waves,  uprearing,  cover  the  coast  with  wrecks 
and  stones,  and  afterwards,  retreating,  sweep  the  pebbles  from 
the  shore  with  a  harsh  and  frightful  report,  while  innumerable 
flakes  of  white  foam,  borne  by  the  wind  into  the  interior  of  the 
land  resemble  snow  issuing  from  the  sea. 

The  principal  wealth  of  the  Indian  Ocean  formerly  consisted 
in  the  pearl  oysters^  which  were  found  in  greatest  abundance  at 
the  entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  at  the  north-west,  and  in  the 
strait  which  separates  India  from  the  Isle  of  Ceylon.  They 
somewhat  resemble  the  common  oyster,  but  are  larger.  They 
are  found  attached  to  ledges  of  rock,  from  15  to  75  feet  in  depth. 
A  fisherman  dives  to  the  bottom,  remains  a  minute  and  a  half 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  OCEANS.  4'9 

under  water,  gathers  as  many  shells  as  he  can,  sometimes  as 
many  as  150,  and  then  hastily  gives  his  companions  the  customary 
signal  for  drawing  the  cord,  by  means  of  which  they  bring  him  as 
rapidly  as  possible  above  water.  After  a  few  days  they  open 
and  carefully  wash  the  oysters,  and  commence  the  search  for  the 
pearls  enclosed  in  them.  All  the  oysters  do  not  contain  them ;  but 
sometimes  ten  or  twelve  are  found  in  a  single  shell.  The  pearl 
is  composed  of  a  substance  which  the  animal  secretes  or  emits 
from  its  body  when  it  has  been  wounded,  or  a  grain  of  sand  en- 
ters its  shell.  The  pearls  are  round,  or  shghtly  elongated ;  the 
most  highly  prized  in  Europe  are  white,  slightly  tinted  with  blue ; 
those  of  Ceylon  are  rose  color.  Some  of  them  are  yellow,  and  are 
very  much  esteemed  by  the  Orientals ;  but  the  rarest  and  most 
costly  are  black :  some  have  been  met  with  aS  large  as  cherries. 
Pearls  were  a  great  article  of  luxury  with  the  ancients,  and  are 
now  a  favorite  ornament  among  the  women  of  the  East.  The 
two  pearls  which  served  for  the  eardrops  of  Cleopatra,  a  cele- 
brated Queen  of  Egypt,  cost  more  than  $  000,000  of  our  money ; 
now,  the  largest  pearl  within  our  knowledge  is  that  wliich  is  used 
by  the  Queen  of  Spain  for  a  cap  button.  They  are  often  re- 
placed in  Europe  by  false  pearls,  of  perfect  imitation. 

These  oysters  also  furnish  another  very  precious  substance, 
which  is  the  brilliant  mother  of  pearl,  that  garnishes  the  interior 
of  the  shell,  and  of  which  sleeve  buttons,  knife  handles,  very 
beautiful  snuff*  boxes,  &c.,  are  manufactured  by  removing  with 
sharp  tools  the  outer  surface  of  the  shell,  which  is  not  mother 
of  pearl. 

Another  moUusk,  which  also  gives  rise  to  a  very  considerable 
fishery,  is  the  holothuria,  a  species  of  worm,  of  which  a  paste  is 
made,  regarded  as  a  dainty  by  the  Chinese.  A  gi'eat  number  of 
vessels  are  engaged  in  this  fishery,  which  is  carried  on  especially 
on  the  northern  coasts  of  Australia,  and  in  the  neighboring 
islands. 

Another  product  of  the  Indian  Sea,  which  is  in  no  less  demand 
among  the  Chinese  gourmands,  is  the  nests  of  a  very  small  spe- 
cies of  swallow,  called  salangane  ;  these  nests,  transparent  as 
gum,  and  very  fragile,  appear  to  be  formed  of  gelatinous  marine 
plants.  They  are  collected  on  the  ledges  of  rocks,  bordering  on 
5 


i. 


50-  THE  GEOGRAPHY   OF  NATURE. 

the  sea,  in  the  islands  situated  in  the  north  of  Australia,  and  par- 
ticularly in  Java.  The  Chinese  make  great  consumption  of 
them,  and  they  are  also  exported  to  Europe. 

The  tortoises,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  give  rise  to 
quite  an  important  fishery  m  the  small  islands  situated  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Africa.     They  furnish  a  famous  shell. 

This  ocean  contains  a  great  number  of  excellent  fish,  which, 
however,  present  nothing  remarkable.  Among  the  cetacea,  we 
should,  however,  mention  the  dugong,  whose  head,  like  that  of  the 
moose,  is  armed  with  two  strong  vertical  teeth,  concealed  under  a 
thick  lip.  The  flesh  of  the  dugong  affords  a  very  excellent  ali- 
ment, but  it  is  sought  chiefly  for  its  tusks,  which  answer  the  same 
purposes  as  ivory.  This  seal  inhabits  shallow  coasts,  and  sub- 
sists on  marine  plants. 

Sect.  5.  The  Pacific  Ocean.  —  This  ocean,  discovered 
by  the  Spaniard  Balboa,  in  1513,  at  the  period  of  the  conquest 
of  America,  received  from  him  the  appellation  of  the  South  Sea, 
by  which  it  is  now  often  designated.  Some  years  after,  (1520,) 
the  navigator  Magellan,  who  first  made  the  circuit  of  the  world, 
having  traversed  this  whole  sea  from  east  to  west  without  expe- 
riencing any  tempest,  gave  it  the  name  of  Pacific  Ocean,  which 
it  has  also  preserved. 

This  ocean,  the  most  vast  of  all,  possesses  a  large  number  of 
currents,  with  which  it  is  important  for  navigators  to  be  acquainted. 
Among  others  should  be  named  the  immense  equatorial  current, 
which  moves  towards  the  west  with  remarkable  regularity,  and 
enables  voyagers  sailing  from  America  to  China  to  accomplish 
this  passage  almost  without  hazard. 

Nowhere  do  sea  weeds  acquire  such  gigantic  dimensions  as  in 
this  ocean.  The  stalk  of  the  nei-eocystis,  which  is  about  the 
size  of  whip  cord,  extends  all  along  the  north-western  coasts  of 
America,  to  a  depth  of  300  feet ;  it  terminates  in  a  balloon  of 
from  6  to  7  feet  in  length,  in  the  form  of  a  barrel,  and  crowned 
by  a  tuft  of  more  than  50  forked  leaves,  the  tuft  itself  being  from 
30  to  40  feet  in  length.  The  balloon,  which  is  filled  with  air, 
serves  to  support  this  enormous  tuft,  and  enables  it  to  float  on  the 
surface  of  the  water.  Above  the  balloon,  in  the  midst  of  the  leafy 
tuft,  the  sea  otter  finds  its  favorite  retreat ;  concealed  in  this  am- 


DESCRIPTION   OF   THE  OCEANS.  51 

buscade,  it  waylays  the  fish  which  it  makes  its  prey.  There 
must  necessarily  be  great  strength  in  this  long  and  slender  stalk, 
which  sustains  all  this  ground  tackle,  and  is  employed  as  a  fish- 
ing line  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  Another  plant  of  the 
same  species,  the  macrocystis,  whose  balloon  and  leaves  are  of 
smaller  dimensions,  sometimes  attains  a  length  of  1500  feet ;  as 
it  approaches  the  surface  of  the  watfer,  the  stalk  divides  into  two 
branches,  and  these  into  numerous  others,  finally  resulting  in  a 
floating  mass  of  foliage,  occupying  a  space  of  some  thousand 
square  feet.    This  is  the  longest  of  all  sea  weeds. 

Among  the  interesting  animals  wliich  the  Pacific  Ocean  pre- 
sents, is  the  madrepores^  which,  although  of  infinitely  small 
size,  produce  enormous  banks  of  coral,  and  even  islands  of 
greater  or  less  extent.  Like  the  larvae  of  bees,  (or  "convains,) 
which  may  be  seen  in  a  cake  of  wax,  placed  each  in  a  cell, 
the  head  turned  towards  the  opening,  the  little  madrepores  arc 
also  fixed  in  strong  tenements,  which  they  have  themselves 
created,  in  the  same  manner  as  snails  secrete  or  emit  from  their 
body  a  substance,  which,  hardening,  forms  their  sheU.  These 
animals  cannot  leave  their  cell,  but  their  mouth  opens  towards 
the  aperture,  and  takes  its  nourishment  from  the  waters  of  the 
sea  by  means  of  tentacles,  which  answer  the  purpose  of  arms. 
Each  of  these  tiny  beings  labors  during  its  short  existence  in  en- 
larging its  dwelling.  Their  eggs  soon  hatch,  and  the  young  mad- 
repores erect  their  cells  above  those  which  existed  before  them  ; 
these  in  their  turn  are  stifled  and  disappear,  but  their  habitations 
of  stone  serve  as  foundations  for  those  of  new  generations.  It  is 
estimated  that  a  reef  of  coral  increases  only  half  a  foot  in  one 
century :  nevertheless,  in  the  course  of  time  these  enoraious  masses 
of  rock  rise  even  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  cease  to  grow ; 
but  sand  and  various  deposits  are  soon  accumulated  upon  them 
by  the  waves,  and  thus  islands  are  formed  almost  level  with  the 
water,  which  the  subterranean  fires  of  volcanoes  sometimes  up- 
heave, and  seeds  of  plants,  borne  thither  by  the  winds  or  birds, 
soon  engender  a  more  or  less  abundant  vegetation,  until,  finally, 
man  fixes  his  abode  there. 

As  the  madrepores  cannot  live  at  a  very  great  depth,  the  coral 
reefs  have  only  been  established  upon  the  elevated  portions  of 


52 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


the  ocean  bed.  But  there  these  animals  are  collected  in  masses 
as  innumerable  as  the  blades  of  grass  which  cover  our  meadows. 

Hundreds  of  leagues  in  length  are  occupied  by  these  prairies 
of  madrepores,  which  form,  for  example,  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
AustraHa,  a  dangerous  reef  of  500  miles  in  length,  without  any- 
opening  for  the  passage  of  ships. 

The  coral,  properly  so  called,  which  is  found  especially  on  the 


Coral. 


coasts  of  a  sea  in  Europe  entitled  the  Mediterranean,  and  upon 
those  of  the  Indian  Sea,  is  also  formed  by  animals  analogous  to 
the  madrepores.  It  resembles  in  shape  a  tree,  having  only  the 
trunk  and  branches ;  but  it  does  not  rise  more  than  a  foot  and  a 
half  above  the  rocks,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  a  broad-spreading 
base.  The  coral  is  found  from  15  to  300  feet  in  depth ;  the  most 
beautiful  is  red  or  flesh  color,  as  hard  as  stone,  and  is  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  necklaces,  ear  rings,  bracelets,  &c.,  very 
highly  prized,  especially  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America. 

Among  the  mammals  which  should  be  cited,  on  account  of  the 
pursuit  to  which  they  give  rise  in  this  ocean  among  Europeans 
and  Americans,  is  the  cachalot,  which  resembles  the  whale,  but 
has  not  as  heavy  or  thick  a  body ;  it  swims  with  more  rapidity, 
and  can  remain  longer  under  water.  It  also  yields  less  oil,  has 
teeth,  and  no  whalebone  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  found 
in  the  cavities  of  its  head  a  peculiar  liquid,  which,  on  cooling, 
hardens  and  becomes  the  spermaceti  of  which  candles  are  made, 
and  which  is  also  used  in  medicine. 


DESCRIPTION   OF  THE  OCEANS.  63 

The  cachalot  is  sought  principally  for  this  substance,  as  it  con- 
tains much  less  blubber  than  the  whale.  The  perfume  known  by 
the  name  of  ambergris  is  also  a  substance  which  is  formed  in  the 
entrails  of  the  cachalot.  This  animal  has  an  enormous  head, 
which  constitutes  nearly  half  its  body  ;  thus  it  can  swallow  huge 
sharks  at  a  mouthful.  A  skeleton  of  a  cachalot  has  been  seen,  in 
the  head  of  which  twelve  musicians  were  playing  around  a  table, 
while  thirty  persons,  seated  at  another  table,  were  taking  their 
repast  in  the  skeleton  of  its  body. 

An  assiduous  chase  has  also  been  prosecuted  for  the  sea  wolf, 
a  mammal  from  25  to  30  feet  in  length,  covered  with  an  excellent 
fat,  comparable  to  butter,  and  whose  skin  may  be  prepared  to  serve 
different  purposes.  Finally,  the  seal  known  by  the  name  of  the 
sea  lion,  is  pursued  even  to  the  coldest  extremities  of  the  great 
ocean ;  its  skin  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  leather  straps 
and  shoes. 

5* 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE    CONTINENT    OF    ASIA. 

Asia  is  the  largest  of  the  five  divisions  of  the  world.  Its  ex- 
tent is  five  times  as  great  as  that  of  Europe  or  Oceanica.  It 
is,  moreover,  situated  in  the  midst  of  all  the  other  continents, 
with  which  it  is  easily  put  in  communication,  both  by  means  of 
the  main  land  and  by  groups  of  islands  lying  adjacent  to  each 
other. 

Section  1.  The  Limits  of  Asia.  — The  Arctic  Ocean  is  on 
the  north,  with  which  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  become  ac- 
quainted ;  and  on  the  east  the  Pacific  Ocean,  with  which  we  are 
also  familiar,  but  which  forms  on  the  coast  of  Asia  different  seas, 
gulfs,  or  straits,  which  merit  our  particular  attention. 

Between  the  most  prominent  point  of  Asia,  called  East  Cape, 
and  the  continent  of  America,  is  Behring's  Strait,  so  called  from 
the  name  of  a  Danish  navigator  in  the  service  of  Russia,  who 
first  discovered  it.  The  passage  is  there  obstructed  during  a  great 
part  of  the  year  by  ice. 

South  of  this  strait,  between  the  Asiatic  continent,  the  Ameri- 
can continent,  and  a  long  chain  of  islands  called  Aleutian  Isles,  is 
the  Sea  of  Kamtchatka,  where  the  whales  now  seek  refuge  from 
the  incessant  pursuit  which  is  made  for  them,  and  before  which 
they  will  soon  completely  disappear.  It  has  been  remarked  that 
since  they  have  been  constrained  to  take  up  their  quarters  in 
these  rigorous  climates  these  cetacea  have  become  less  produc- 
tive. The  females  give  birth  to  only  one  during  the  year,  and 
moreover,  the  young,  being  unable,  as  heretofore,  to  migrate  to  a 
more  southern  sea,  grow  but  slowly,  and  often  perish  prematurely 
of  a  disease  of  the  lungs,  of  which  naturalists  have  proved  the 
existence. 

South-west  of  the  preceding  is  the  Sea  of  OhotsJc,  between 

(54) 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  65 

the  continent  of  Asia  and  some  islands  called  Kooriles.  This 
is  a  sea  which  generally  affords  a  safe  navigation,  because  it 
contains  few  sand  banks  and  shoals.  But  after  the  month  of 
November  its  shores  are  covered  with  ice,  which  does  not  melt 
until  April.  The  Sea  of  Japan^  on  the  contrary,  situated  between 
the  coast  of  Asia  and  the  islands  of  Japan,  and  which  somewhat 
resembles  a  pear  in  shape,  is  a  gloomy,  foggy,  and  stormy  sea, 
which  renders  the  harbors  of  this  country  difficult  of  approach. 

Nature  thus  seems  to  lend  her  aid  to  the  law  which  prohibits 
the  entrance  of  the  empire  of  Japan  to  all  strangers  except  the 
Chinese  and  the  Dutch,  who  only  enjoy  this  privilege  on  condi- 
tions almost  intolerable.  The  Americans  have,  however,  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  some  relations  with  this  country,  which 
will  doubtless  acquire  greater  importance. 

South-west  of  Japan  and  of  the  peninsula  of  Corea,  is  a  sea 
known  under  the  name  of  the  Blue  Sea,  although  possessing 
no  especial  claim  to  this  title.  Advancing  northerly  into  the  land, 
it  forms  a  gulf,  which  has  received  the  name  of  the  Yellow  Sea, 
on  account  of  the  yellowish  deposits  of  lime  with  which  certain 
great  rivers  of  China  cover  the  surrounding  banks. 

Farther  south  we  encounter  the  Indian  Ocean,  at  which  we 
have  already  glanced  in  a  general  manner,  but  will  now  examine 
more  in  detail. 

It  first  forms,  between  the  islands  called  Philippine  and  the  con- 
tinent, a  vast  sea,  known  by  the  name  of  the  China  Sea.  A  very 
curious  mollusk  is  there  obtained,  the  cuttle  Jish,  whose  body,  like 
a  sack,  is  surmounted  by  two  eyes  and  eight  long  claws,  with 
which  it  forcibly  seizes  little  marine  animals,  and  conveys  them 
to  its  mouth,  which  is  provided  with  a  kind  of  beak.  Great  con- 
sumption is  made  of  the  flesh  of  this  animal ;  the  bony  part, 
moreover,  is  sold  under  the  name  of  cuttle  Jish,  to  be  placed  in 
the  cages  of  canary  birds,  whose  bills  it  serves  to  cleanse.  But 
the  most  curious  property  of  the  cuttle  fish  is  a  bladder  filled  with 
a  black  liquid,  which  the  animal  has  the  faculty  of  diffusing 
around  it,  to  darken  the  water,  and  thus  elude  the  pursuits  of  its 
enemies.  The  famous  Chinese  ink,  which  no  one  has  yet  suc- 
ceeded in  imitating,  is  said  to  be  made  of  this  liquid.  Another 
species  of  cuttle  fish,  quite  common  in  the  Mediterranean,  fur- 


56  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

nishes  designers  with  the  brown  color  called  sepia.  The  China 
Seas  and  the  Philippine  Isles  also  furnish  the  most  valuable  spe- 
cies of  imbricated  tortoise,  which  yields  a  very  beautiful  shell. 


Cuttle  Fish. 

The  sea  of  China,  projecting  into  the  land,  forms  at  the  west 
and  south  two  considerable  gulfs,  that  of  Tonquin  and  that  of  *Siam. 
Both,  but  especially  the  former,  are  exposed  to  terrible  hurri- 
canes, known  under  the  name  of  typhoons.  They  announce  their 
approach  by  a  small  black  cloud;  then  follow  terrific  thunder 
and  lightning,  a  pouring  rain,  and  violent  wind.  After  five  or 
six  hours  an  absolute  calm  succeeds ;  but  the  hurricane  soon  recom- 
mences in  an  opposite  direction  with  redoubled  fury,  and  continues 
for  an  equal  length  of  time.  It  is  the  conflict  between  the  north 
wind,  descending  from  the  mountains  of  the  continent,  and  the 
south  wind,  proceeding  from  the  sea,  which  produces  these  whirl- 
winds, by  which  trees  are  uprooted  like  straw,  and  many  gr^t 
ships  submerged. 

The  Indian  Ocean  forms,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  India,  a  vast 
sea,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal;  it  is  at  the  en- 
trance of  this  gulf,  between  the  Island  of  Ceylon  and  the  conti- 
nent, that  the  finest  pearls  are  found. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  peninsula  of  India  is  situated  the 
Sea  of  Oman,  so  called  from  the  name  of  the  southern  coast  of 


THE  CONTINENT   OF  ASIA.  67 

Arabia.  It  forms  two  vast  gulfs,  infinitely  more  celebrated  than 
itself.  The  first  is  the  Persian  Gulf,  whose  bed  is  carpeted  with 
greenish  coral,  insomuch  that  in  calm  weather  one  seems  to  see 
extended  beneath  the  water  verdant  forests  and  fresh  prairies, 
which  spectacle  contrasts  agreeably  with  the  gloomy  monotony  of 
a  sandy  and  arid  shore.  Tins  coral  is,  however,  inferior  to  that 
of  the  Mediten'anean.  One  other  curious  characteristic  of  this 
gulf  is,  that  in  many  places  springs  of  fresh  water  bubble  up  in 
the  midst  of  the  briny  waves.  The  other  is  the  Sea  of  Arabia, 
or  Eed  Sea,  replete  with  reefs,  shoals,  and  islets,  and  presenting 
but  little  safe  and  open  space  to  navigation.  This  sea  owes  its 
name  to  a  red  tint  which  it  sometimes  assumes  during  one  or  two 
days,  and  which  proceeds  from  a  compact  but  thin  bed  of  a  fine 
substance,  which,  examined  with  the  microscope,  has  been  discov- 
ered to  be  an  infinitely  small  plant.  Elsewhere  similar  phenom- 
ena have  been  produced  by  the  presence  of  red  microscopic  ani- 
malcula. 

North-west  of  the  Red  Sea  is  a  strip  of  land  sixty  miles  in 
breadth,  and  knoAvn  by  the  name  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  which 
connects  Asia  with  Africa.  It  is  proposed  to  establish  across 
this  isthmus  a  railroad,  which  would  considerably  facilitate  the 
commerce  of  Europe  with  the  countries  of  India  and  China.  If, 
better  yet,  it  should  be  decided  to  canalize  it,  navigators  sailing 
for  Southern  Asia  would  no  longer  be  obliged  to  make  the  circuit 
of  Africa,  which  sometimes  involves  such  a  long  and  difficult 
voyage. 

On  the  western  side  Asia  is  washed  by  seas  formed  by  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  We  first  meet  with  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  of 
whose  beautiful  coral,  cuttle  fish,  &c.,  we  have  already  made  men- 
tion, and  of  which  we  shall  speak  more  particularly  hereafter. 
Next  comes  the  Archipelago,  sprinkled  with  its  charming  and 
innumerable  islands,  and  where  are  found  the  finest  and  softest 
sponges. 

The  sponges  are  produced  by  an  animal  plant,  or  zoophyte. 
They  spread  over  the  rocks,  to  which  they  adhere  so  tenaciously 
that  it  is  impossible  to  tear  them  away  undamaged.  But  at  cer- 
tain seasons  of  the  year  clusters  of  eggs  become  detached  from 
them,  which,  transported  hither  and  thither  by  the  waves,  go  to 


L 


68 


THE  GEOGRAPHY    OF  NATURE. 


form  elsewhere  other  sponges,  carpeting  with  them  the  bottom  of 
the  seas.     From  the  Archipelago  we  pass  to  the  Sea  of  Mar- 


mora, so  called  on  account  of  the  great  quarries  of  white  marble 
which  are  found  in  the  principal  of  its  islands,  {marmor,  marble.) 
This  is  a  large,  calm  basin,  which  the  wind  scarcely  ruffles,  whose 
banks  are  bordered  with  pleasant  country  seats,  and  its  waters 
covered  with  boats  whose  form  and  lightness  are  sufficient  to  indi- 
cate the  tranquillity  of  the  waves  which  they  furrow.  The  Black 
Sea,  which  we  next  encounter,  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  terrible  sea, 
and  fruitful  in  shipwrecks.  In  ancient  times  it  was  called  by  a 
name  which  signified  inhospitable  sea,  and  the  sailors  of  modem 
times  stand  no  less  in  awe  of  its  sudden  tempests.  The  number 
of  vessels  which  annually  perish  there  is  very  considerable.  Ice 
also  obstructs  its  navigation  in  the  severe  winters.  Some  years 
of  extreme  cold  have  been  cited,  when  this  entire  sea  has  been 
frozen  over. 

From  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Frozen  Ocean  of  the  north,  the 
boundary  lines  which  separate  Asia  from  Europe  arc  not  very 
clearly  defined.  The  Ural  River  and  the  Ural  Mountains,  whicli 
extend  from  south  to  north,  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  Frozen 
Ocean,  are,  however,  universally  considered  to  determine  the  limit. 
The  Ural  River  flows  first  among  steep  rocks,  but  lower  down 


THE   CONTINENT  OF   ASIA.  59 

its  waters  wind  through  vast  steppes  or  arid  plains  covered  with 
efflorescences  or  deposits  of  salt  At  the  approach  of  winter  it 
becomes  very  fruitful  in  fish,  and  empties  into  the  Caspian  Sea 
by  many  mouths. 

The  Ural  Mountains  form  a  chain  which  is  not  very  elevated,  and 
which  is  only  remarkable  for  the  marvellous  wealth  of  its  mines. 
Iron  is  found  there  in  abundance ;  in  certain  places  the  deposits 
seem  to  be  inexhaustible.  On  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  chain 
are  soils,  where,  by  merely  raising  the  turf,  there  may  be  found, 
at  a  slight  depth,  argil,  or  sand  containing  gold.  A  certain 
quantity  of  diamonds  are  also  collected  from  these  sands.  A 
rare  species  of  metal,  the  platina,  white  as  silver,  and  harder 
and  heavier  than  gold,  is  also  found  here.  In  Russia  it  is  used 
for  money,  and  it  serves  a  great  number  of  purposes  in  the  arts. 

Sect.  2.  Peninsulas  of  Asia.  —  On  looking  carefully  at  the 
map  which  represents  the  form  of  the  Asiatic  continent,  you  will 
remark  certain  portions  of  land,  which  project  into  the  sea,  and 
are  surrounded  on  many  sides  by  water ;  these  are  called  penin- 
sulas. We  shall  name  only  the  principal,  which  are  six  in  num- 
ber, commencing  at  the  west,  and  continuing  with  those  which  lie 
at  the  south  and  east. 

Asia  possesses  on  its  western  side  two  immense  and  very  im- 
portant peninsulas,  but  of  which  we  shall  say  nothing  at  present, 
as  they  both  form  distinct  continents,  which  will  claim  our  espe- 
cial attention  hereafter.  We  refer  to  Europe  and  Africa,  which, 
as  you  will  perceive,  are,  in  truth,  peninsulas  dependent  on  Asia. 
Tliere  remains  for  us  to  describe  only  one  peninsula  at  the  west  of 
Asia,  viz.,  Antolia,  or  Asia  Minor,  which  is  encompassed  on  three 
sides  by  the  Black  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  the  Archipelago, 
and  the  Mediterranean,  of  which  we  have  previously  spoken. 

1.  Anatolia.  —  It  would  be  difficult  to  give  an  exact  descrip- 
tion of  the  aspect  of  this  immense  country,  so  widely  does  it  vary 
in  different  localities.  In  the  interior  are  found  vast  elevated 
plains,  to  which  the  almost  complete  absence  of  trees  imparts  a 
peculiar  air  of  sadness ;  but  in  the  mountains  or  in  the  low  plains, 
of  which  there  are  a  great  number  near  the  coasts,  one  remarks 
the  flourishing  appearance  of  the  vegetation  of  the  southern 
country. 


60  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

The  climate  is  much  warmer  than  ours,  but  it  is  neither  too 
dry  nor  too  scorching. 

Anatolia  presents  nothing  remarkable  in  respect  to  its  precious 
metals  or  minerals  ;  we  should,  however,  mention  the  sea  foam, 
or  meerschaum,  a  species  of  argillaceous  earth,  of  which  the  beau- 
tiful heads  of  pipes  are  made,  to  which  the  Turks  are  so  partial, 
and  which  are  highly  esteemed  in  every  country  where  smoking 
is  practised. 

The  vegetables  of  Asia  Minor  are  in  the  main  those  of  the 
countries  of  Southern  Europe  —  the  orange,  the  olive,  the  fig,  the 
pomegranate,  the  mulberry  for  silk  worms,  the  vine,  &c.  Raisins 
are  almost  as  important  an  article  of  commerce  in  Asia  as  wine 
in  Europe.  Olive  oil  is  used  instead  of  butter  in  the  preparation 
of  food.  But  this  country  also  yields  other  products,  which  are 
peculiar  to  it,  as  the  pistachio  tree,  which  bears  a  species  of  al- 
mond called  pistachio,  often  found  in  comfits.  A  plant  known  by 
the  name  of  sesame  furnishes  an  excellent  oil,  considerable  quan- 
tities of  which  are  transported  into  Europe.  Next  comes  that 
very  useful  shrub,  the  cotton  tree.  Finally,  in  Anatolia  the  white 
poppy  is  cultivated  to  a  great  extent,  from  which  is  extracted 
opium,  a  substance  which,  administered  in  small  doses,  induces 
sleep,  and  which  taken  in  large  quantities  intoxicates,  and  even 
causes  death.  In  that  country  it  is  only  employed  as  a  med- 
icine, and  with  great  precaution ;  but  the  Turks,  and  especially 
the  Chinese,  make  use  of  it  both  in  drinking  and  smoking,  mix- 
ing it  with  their  tobacco  in  order  to  produce  a  short-Uved  in- 
toxication, which  practice,  in  the  course  of  time,  stupefies  and 
destroys  them.  Opium  is  at  first  an  oily  juice,  which  is  pro- 
cured by  making  an  incision  around  the  heads  of  poppies ;  this 
juice  hardens,  and  is  afterwards  moulded  in  the  form  of  cakes. 

The  animals  of  Asia  Minor  are  for  the  most  part  the  same  as 
those  of  the  countries  of  Southern  Europe  —  fine  horses,  mules, 
and  a  very  vigorous  and  superior  race  of  asses.  The  h^ena  and 
the  jackal  disturb  the  silence  of  the  night  by  their  horrible  cries. 
Hyenas  are  fierce,  strong,  and  voracious  animals,  of  the  size  of  a 
mastiff,  which  go  forth  at  night  in  search  of  prey,  and  even  dis- 
inter dead  bodies ;  they,  however,  flee  from  man,  whom  they  only 
attack  when  greatly  exasperated  or  in  a  famished  condition.     The 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  ASIA. 


61 


jackals,  which  greatly  resemble  foxes,  are  animals  that  live  in 
companies,  and  sally  forth  by  night  in  large   bodies  to  seek 


Hyena. 

their  prey,  and  carry  off  game  and  sheep.  Their  barking  and 
howling  give  one  no  rest  during  the  night ;  by  day,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  jackals  are  quiet,  and  flee  at  the  sight  of  man.     Asia 


Jackal. 

Minor  is  the  country  of  the  goats,  cats,  and  rabbits  known  under 
the  surname  of  Angora,  which  are  so  remarkable  for  their  long, 
silky  hair.  Only  the  cats  and  rabbits  can  undergo  transportation 
and  exist  in  other  countries,  the  goats  being  unable  to  endure 
the  change  of  climate.  Of  the  wool  of  the  latter  very  beautiful 
cloth  is  manufactured,  and  shawls  almost  as  much  esteemed  as  the 
celebrated  shawls  of  Cashmere. 

The  white   population  is  composed  of  Turks,  a  sober,  hos- 
pitable, proud,  and  valiant  race,  but  who  have  always  shown 
6 


62 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


themselves  extremely  cruel  and  contemptuous  towards  their  Chris- 
tian subjects.     The  latter  are  either  Armenians,  who  chiefly  in- 


Turkish  Horseman. 

habit  the  towns  and  devote  themselves  to  commerce,  or  Greeks, 
active  and  industrious  agriculturists,  but  knavish  and  deceitful, 
as  slaves  long  subject  to  oppression  usually  become. 

The  three  southern  peninsulas  of  Asia  are  the  following:  — 

2.  Arabia.  —  Arabia  is  surrounded  by  the  waters  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  of  the  Sea  of  Oman,  and  the  Red  Sea,  with  which  we 
are  already  familiar. 

To  form  an  idea  of  the  aspect  of  this  country,  picture  to  your- 
self vast  arid  and  deserted  plains,  scorched  by  a  burning  sun,  and 
only  studded  here  and  there  with  fertile  spots,  called  oases  ;  barren 
and  rugged  mountains;  not  a  lake  or  rivulet;  a  few  incon- 
siderable rivers,  and  these  mostly  dry  during  a  portion  of  the 
year ;  and  only  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  especially  in  the 
southern  part,  fresh  and  fertile  valleys,  which  agreeably  refresh 
the  eyes. 

The  climate  is  generally  diy  and  burning;  on  the  coasts  it  is 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  ASIA.  6B 

often  heavy  and  damp.  Two  seasons  only  occur  there  —  the  dry 
and  the  rainy.  After  the  latter,  the  deserted  plains  are  clothed 
with  a  smiling  verdure,  and  carpeted  with  flowers ;  but  ere  long 
the  heat  of  the  sun  has  again  withered  the  grass,  and  reduced  the 
desert  to  its  wonted  aridity.  Sometimes  the  dry  season  lasts 
two  or  three  years,  during  which  not  a  drop  of  rain  falls,  and  the 
whole  country  is  struck  with  sterility.  Often,  also,  the  traveller 
is  surprised  by  terrible  winds,  the  most  celebrated  of  which,  the 
Simoom,  is  a  hurricane,  coming  from  the  south,  which,  raising 
whirlwinds  of  red  and  burning  sand,  threatens  to  suffocate  and 
swallow  up  men  and  animals. 

Arabia  furnishes  no  extraordinary  minerals  or  precious  metals. 

Vegetation  is  very  luxuriant  in  the  well-watered  portions,  prin- 
cipally at  the  south-west,  in  what  was  formerly  called  Arabia 
Felix, 

There  are  found  wheat,  maize,  olives,  and  other  plants,  produ- 
cing what  we  call  southern  fruit  —  oranges,  figs,  &c.  Arabia  pos- 
sesses, moreover,  many  other  celebrated  vegetables,  as  the  date 
tree,  whose  fruit,  of  a  yellowish  brown,  of  the  size  of  a  prune,  and 
containing  a  very  hard  kernel,  affords  a  wholesome  and  agreeable 


Date  Tree. 
food,  which  partly  takes  the  place  of  bread  in  this  country.     The 
date  is  a  tree  of  the  family  of  palms,  whose  trunk,  forming  an  al- 
most straight  column  of  equal  size  throughout  its  whole  length, 


64  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

often  rises  to  more  than  100  feet.  The  dates  grow  in  enormous 
hanging  clusters,  which  often  weigh  from  25  to  30  pounds,  and 
issue  from  the  midst  of  the  crown  of  leaves  or  palms  at  the  top 
of  the  tree.  Another  renowned  plant,  of  which  this  has  long  been 
considered  the  primitive  country,  is  the  coffee  tree  —  an  evergreen 


Coffee  Tree. 

shrub,  which  usually  grows  to  a  height  of  12  or  15  feet,  and 
whose  flowers,  similar  to  those  of  the  jasmine,  diffuse  an  agreea- 
ble perfume.  When  they  fall,  the  fruit  succeeds  them,  which  is 
first  green,  then  red,  and  when  ripe,  similar  to  a  cherry.  Two 
grains,  enveloped  in  a  thin  peel,  are  found  in  the  pod :  these,  after 
being  burned  and  ground,  yield  us  the  beverage.  No  species  of 
coffee  can  be  compared  with  that  of  Mocha^  in  Arabia.  This 
peninsula  also  produces  various  trees  which  furnish  gums  and 
resins.  Thus  from  the  bark  of  a  species  of  acacia  exudes  the 
celebrated  gum  arable,  so  much  employed  in  the  arts  and  in 
medicine,  and  particularly  in  the  composition  of  jujube  paste, 
mallows,  and  licorice.  Other  trees  yield  halsam,  one  of  which 
is  called  the  balm  of  Mecca,  which  is  the  most  odoriferous 
and  the  most  costly  of  resin  gums.  Others  furnish  myrrh  and 
olibanum,  or  incense,  which  the  ancients  were  in  the  habit  of 
burning  in  their  temples,  to  purify  or  perfume  them. 

Arabia  is  no  less  remarkable  for  its  animals.  No  horse  can  be 
compared  with  the  Arabian  in  beauty,  lieetness,  and  attachment 
to  its  master.    The  camel  is  also  found  here,  an  animal  noted  for 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA. 


65 


its  sobriety  and  docility,  which  the  Creator  seems  to  have  organ- 
ized expressly  for  traversing  the  desert  solitudes  of  Asia  and 


Camel. 

Africa,  for  existing  many  days  during  the  heat  of  summer  with- 
out water,  and  bearing  a  burden  of  6  or  8  quintals.  The  ordina- 
ry camel  has  two  humps ;  but  there  is  a  species,  peculiar  to  Arabia, 
which  has  but  one,  and  is  only  used  for  the  saddle  and  the  race : 
this  is  the  dromedary ;  it  runs  very  fast,  and  has  an  easy  pace. 
Asses  are  also  raised  in  this  country  of  a  species  so  excellent  and 


Dromedarv. 


66 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


Spirited  that  they  may  be  compared  to  horses.  The  immense 
solitudes  of  the  interior  resound  throughout  the  night  with  the 
horrible^'roar  of  the  lion,  the  fearful  cries  of  the  panther,  and  the 


Lion. 


yelping  of  the  jackal^  all  of  which  unite  in  waging  desperate 
war  with  the  graceful  and  gentle  gazelle^  or  with  the  ostrich, 
the  largest  of  birds,  whose  egga  are  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the 
desert  sands  in  which  they  are  deposited. 

Among  the  reptiles  should  be  mentioned  the  chameleon,  a  lizard 
more  than  a  foot  in  length,  which  lives  on  trees,  subsists  on  insects, 
and  is  particularly  remarkable  for  its  sudden  changes  of  color. 
Ordinarily  it  is  green,  yellowish  when  asleep,  black  when  exas- 
perated, and  at  other  times  presents  still  different  shades. 

Among  the  insects,  none  are  more  formidable  tlian  the  locusts, 
which  move  in  columns  so  dense  that  their  flight  obscures  the 
light  of  day,  and  the  hollow  report  which  it  creates  announces 
their  approach  at  many  leagues'  distance.  They  extend  their 
ravages  throughout   Southern  Asia  and   the   north  of  Africj^, 


THE  CONTINENT  OP   ASIA. 


67 


Wherever  tliey  appear,  the  verdure  disappears;  the  grass  is 
entirely  consumed ;  the  trees,  stripped  of  leaves,  are  reduced  to 


their  branches  and  trunks ;  and  often  famine  ensues.  The  Arabs 
collect  these  locusts,  string  them  together  in  order  to  dry  them, 
and  eat  them  roasted. 

The  population  of  this  peninsula  is  white,  but  slightly  bronzed 
by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  Arabs  are  lean,  grave,  and  proud ; 
very  sober  tmd  hospitiible,  but  hnplacfible  in  their  vengeance,  and 


m 


THE  GEOGRAPHY   OF  NATUEE. 


merciless  pillagers  of  the  neighboring  nations,  or  of  travellers  who 
venture  into  their  deserts  without  sufficient  escort.  The  greater 
part  are  nomadics,  that  is  to  say,  without  fixed  abodes,  transport- 


Ostrich. 


ing  their  cattle  and  tents  from  place  to  place.  They  are  divided, 
as  in  the  times  of  the  patriarchs,  into  numerous  and  often  hostile 
tribes,  and  the  Arabic  people  always  exemplify  the  prophecy 
foretold  concerning  their  ancestor  —  "  Ishmacl  will  be  a  wild  man; 


THE  CX)NTINENT   OF   ASIA. 


69 


Locicst. 

his  hand  will  be  against  every  man,  and  every  man's  hand  against 
him."     (Gen.  xvi.  12.) 

The  Arabs  are  all  disciples  of  the  false  prophet  Mahomet,  who 
was  bom  at  Mecca,  and  whose  tomb  is  located  in  Medina  —  the 
two  holy  cities  whither  every  good  Mussulman  considers  it  his 
duty  to  perform  a  pilgi'image,  at  least  once  in  his  life. 


Pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 


3.  India.  —  The  third  of  the  great  peninsulas  of  Asia 
is  India,  one  of  the  most  curious  and  most  celebrated  coun- 
tries in  the  world.     It  is  situated  between  the  Gulf  of  Oman  and 


70  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

theJ3ay  of  Bengal,  and  terminates  in  Cape  Comorin.  This  is  a 
country  whose  aspect  is  extremely  varied :  here  are  charming 
valleys,  or  magnificent  plains  of  extraordinary  fertility ;  there, 
barren  deserts  of  sand  or  steppes ;  elsewhere,  immense  marshes 
near  the  mouths  of  its  great  rivers,  and  vast  and  almost  impen- 
etrable forests. 

The  climate  is  extremely  hot,  at  least  in  the  plains :  only  two 
seasons  are  known  there  —  the  rainy  season,  during  which  all  the 
low  valleys  are  inundated,  and  the  hot  season,  when  the  heat  is 
often  so  intense  as  to  render  the  Europeans  incapable  of  the 
slightest  labor  so  long  as  the  sun  remains  above  the  horizon. 
The  air  is  generally  salubrious ;  nevertheless,  it  was  in  India  that 
the  terrible  disease  known  by  the  name  of  cholera  originated. 

India  has  always  been  greatly  renowned  for  its  minerals  —  its 
gold  and  its  precious  stones ;  among  which  should  be  specified 
the  magnificent  diamonds,  which  are  found  in  the  beds  of  sand  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountains,  and  which  are  sold  at  very  high  prices. 
That  displayed  by  the  Queen  of  England,  at  the  great  exhibition 
in  London,  the  Koohinoor,  is  said  to  be  worth  4,000,000  of  dollars. 

The  vegetation,  favored  by  a  warm  climate  'and  a  damp  soil, 
exhibits  uncommon  vigor.  Every  where  may  be  found  plants 
presenting  useful  stalks  or  roots,  delicious  fruits,  gorgeous  flowers, 
rich  colors,  or  precious  perfumes.  Among  the  woods  we  should 
distinguish  the  bamboos,  a  species  of  reeds  which  grow  to  the 
height  of  60  feet,  and  w^hose  very  hard  stalk  is  used  for  build- 
ing houses :  as  it  is  hollow  inside  from  one  knot  to  the  other, 
it  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  vessels  for  carrying  water ; 
the  smallest,  used  as  walliing  canes,  are  in  great  demand  in  this 
country,  on  account  of  their  lightness  and  flexibility.  Among 
the  plants  serving  for  food  should  be  named  the  rice,  which 
is  the  essential  nourishment  of  the  inhabitants  of  India,  and 
of  one  half  of  the  human  race.  The  rice  of  India,  however,  is 
very  inferior  to  that  of  America.  Next  to  the  rice,  the  plants 
most  precious  to  the  Hindoos  are  the  cocoa  nut  and  the  banana 
tree.  We  must  not  omit  to  mention  the  Jig  trees  of  India,  each 
of  which  constitutes  a  little  forest  by  itself;  for,  from  its  branches 
depend  innumerable  boughs,  which,  reaching  the  ground,  there 
take  root  and  form  so  many  new  stalks.  One  is  here  represented 
possessing  many  thousand  stalks. 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA. 


71 


St^ar  Cane. 

The  sugar  cane  is  a  native  of  many  parts  of  the  torrid  zone, 
and  has  for  its  principal  districts,  besides  India,  China,  the  Sunda 


L 


72 


THE  GEOGRAPHY   OF  NATURE. 


and  Philippine  Islands,  the  Mauritius,  the  Southern  United 
States,  the  West  Indies,  Venezuela,  and  Brazil.  The  plant  was 
found  wild  in  several  parts  of  America,  on  the  discovery  of  the 
continent,  and  occurs  in  a  wild  state  on  many  islands  of  the 
Pacific. 

Among  the  various  useful  vegetables  which  India  furnishes 
in  abundance,  but  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  ai-e  the 
sesame,  the  cotton  plant,  and  the  white  poppy,  also  a  species 
of  rush  palm,  the  ratan  palm,  whose  stalk  produces  tufts  of  flexi- 
ble twigs  of  immense  length,  having  at  intervals  a  knot  and  a  leaf, 
and  resembling  enormous  reeds.  They  are  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  mats,  baskets,  ropes,  and  especially  canes,  very  much  in 
request  on  account  of  their  great  flexibility. 


Tiger. 


Passing  now  to  the  animals  of  India,  we  must  rank  foremost 
the  royal  tiger,  with  black  stripes,  which  is  the  terror  of  these 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  73 

countries  to  such  a  degree  that,  in  certain  regions  of  the  interior, 
the  villages  are  encompassed  with  high  palisades,  near  which  are 
erected  wooden  cages,  whence  the  hunters  Avaylay  the  passage  of 
the  monster,  which  prowls  by  night  around  the  abodes  of  man. 
The  leopardy  almost  as  large,  and  of  the  same  family  as  the 


Leopard. 

tiger,  has  also  tawny  hair,  thickly  studded  with  black  spots. 
There  are,  likewise,  ounces  and  guepards^  or  tiger  hunters, 
which   the  Hindoos   train   for  the  chase.      Next  to  the  tigers, 


Elqjhant. 

the    most    remarkable    animals   of    India    are    the    elephants. 
These  animals,  in  the  savage  state,  live  in  the  forests,  in  more  or 
7 


74 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


less  numerous  bands ;  but  after  being  taken  in  snares  and  subdued 
by  hunger,  they  may  be  tamed ;  and  multitudes  of  them  are  found 
in  the  cities  of  India,  employed  as  beasts  of  burden,  bearing  on 
their  backs  divers  loads,  or  travellers,  sheltered  from  the  heat  by 
a  kind  of  tent  or  palanquin ;  the  elephants  are  used  by  the  princes 
and  nobles  for  luxurious  riding  and  occasions  of  parade.  They 
also  form  a  part  of  the  force  of  armies,  and  are  used  in  the  hunt 
of  the  tiger  and  other  animals.  They  are  fed  with  the  leaves  of 
the  cocoa  nut  tree ;  their  tusks  or  teeth  furnish  ivory,  that  white, 
hard,  and  precious  substance,  which  may  be  carved  and  wrought 
into  thousands  of  costly  Or  useful  articles.  Camels  are  common 
in  the  north  of  India.  The  oxen  and  cows  are  of  small  size,  but 
held  in  such  extreme  veneration  by  the  Hindoos,  that  the  touch 
of  a  cow  is  believed  by  them  to  absolve  one  from  every  crime. 
Even  to  the  present  day,  some  of  these  oxen  are  considered  as 
consecrated  to  the  divinity,  and  are  called  hrahmin  oxen.  They 
may  be  seen  wandering  unmolested  through  the  Hindoo  villages, 
entering  the  markets,  and  appropriating,  without  opposition,  what- 
ever herbs  or  vegetables  suit  their  fancy.  The  merchant  who  is 
favored  by  this  preference  esteems  it  a  great  honor,  and  a  cause 
of  rejoicing. 

The  ox  presents  in  India  many  varieties,  as  the  zehu,  remarka- 
ble for  one  or  two  fat  humps  which  it  has  on  its  back,  and  the 


Hedgehog. 

buffalo,  which  exists  in  the  savage  and  domestic  state,  and  de- 
lights especially  in  the  marshy  portions,  &c.     Troops  of  stags 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA. 


75 


and  antehpesj  of  many  species,  may  be  seen  in  all  the  mountains. 
The  porcupine f  a  species  of  hedgehog,  with  long  quills,  conceals 
itself  in  the  hollows  of  the  rocks.  The  forests  are  full  of 
monkeys,  which  appear  in  numerous  companies,  devastate  the 
fields  and  orchards,  and  intrude  themselves  even  into  the  cities. 

Birds  are  very  numerous  in  India,  but  few  of  them  are  birds 
of  song.  It  is  in  the  north  of  this  country  that  the  beautiful 
falcons  are  found,  which  were  formerly  trained  to  pursue  other 


Falcon. 


birds — a  sport  which  was  for  centuries  a  passion  of  the  noble 
lords  of  Europe.  There  also  are  found  huge  vultures,  the  largest 
of  the  birds  of  prey.  The  south  abounds  in  parrots  of  all  colors. 
And  in  all  the  forests  may  be  encountered,  in  the  wild  state, 
troops  of  peacocks  —  those  birds  whose  plumage  and  train,  com- 
pletely bespangled  with  eyes,  have  often  delighted  our  gaze. 

Among  the  remarkable  reptiles  of  this  country  are  many 
serpents,  of  all  sizes,  some  of  which  are  very  venomous,  and 
glide  about  every  where,  sometimes  even  stealing  into  houses. 
The  most  celebrated  are  the  boas,  sumamed  the  kings  of  serpents, 
and  which  attain  30,  and  even  40  feet  in  length.  Their  teeth 
contain  no  poison  ;  they  stifle  and  crush  their  prey  by  encompass- 
ing it  with  their  folds,  plaster  it  over  with  saliva,  and  enormously 
distending  their  jaws  and  throat,  swallow  up  dogs,  stags,  and 
even,  it  is  said,  oxen.    While  digesting  the  enormous  mass  of 


76 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


food  with  which  their  stomach  is  thus  loaded,  they  remain  in  a 
state  of  profound  torpor,  during  which  they  are  harmless.  As 
if  the  Creator  had  designed  to  provide  a  remedy  for  evil,  there 
exist  in  India  many  animals  hostile  to  the  serpents,  and  which 
wage  desperate  war  with  them,  as  the  mangouste,  a  small  animal, 
of  the  size  of  the  cat,  which  evinces  an  insatiable  ardor  in  de- 
stroying these  reptiles. 


Boa. 


Among  the  insects  should  be  specified  innumerable  mosquitoes, 
or  gnats,  whose  sting  causes  cruel  irritations ;  certain  worms, 
which  insinuate  themselves  under  the  skin,  and  inflict  acute  pain ; 
finally,  another  insect,  which,  by  piercing  certain  fig  trees  of  In- 
dia, gives  outlet  to  the  lacker,  in  which  resinous  juice  it  im- 
merses itself,  and  produces  a  quantity  of  worms,  which  soon 
disperse  and  make  similar  punctures  on  other  portions  of  the 
tree.  The  lacker  yields  a  very  durable  red  color ;  it  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  sealing  wax,  and  in  the  composition  of  var- 
nish.    It  is  collected  twice  a  year. 

The  population  is  of  the  white  race,  but  the  lower  classes  are 
very  swarthy,  and  almost  black,  owing  to  the  excessive  heat. 
The  Hindoos  are  weak  and  eflfeminate,  lack  courage  and  energy, 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA,  77 

and  cannot  march  with  the  equipment  of  a  European  soldier. 
Their  feet  and  hands  are  astonishingly  small,  and  their  hodies  of 
such  extraordinary  suppleness,  that  inimitable  jugglers  and  tum- 
blers are  met  with  among  them.  They  are  generally  indolent, 
cunning,  very  adroit,  tolerably  well  informed,  and  civilized,  but 


Hindoos. 

extremely  superstitious,  and  subjected  to  the  gross  or  cruel  wor- 
ship of  innumerable  idols.  Owing  to  the  zealous  labors  of  Chris- 
tian missionaries,  many  thousands  have,  however,  renounced 
idolatry.  In  the  north  there  are  many  Mahometans. 
'  4.  Indo  China.  —  Asia  possesses  still  a  fourth  great  pen- 
insula, which  is  Indo  China,  situated  between  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  on  the  west,  and  the  China  Sea,  on  the  east.  It  ter- 
minates at  the  south,  in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca  and  Cape 
Romania,  which  stretches  almost  to  the  equator. 

This  country  presents  a  varied  aspect :  at  the  north  are  very 
high  mountains,  whence  flow  great  rivers,  which  form  immense 
valleys,  terminating  in  low  and  damp,  but  very  fertile  plains. 

The  climate  is  extremely  hot,  although  slightly  tempered  by 
the  vicinity  of  the  sea  and  the  dampness  of  the  soil.  Cold  rains, 
which  last  about  two  months,  take  the  place  of  winter. 

Indo  China  abounds  in  precious  minerals,  such  as  rubies,  topazes, 
and  sapphires.  The  ruby  is  a  precious  stone,  which  ranks  next  to 
the  diamond ;  there  are  various  species,  of  a  hue  more  or  less  red ; 
the  Oriental  ruby,  of  a  brilliant  red,  is  the  most  choice :  when  large 
it  is  termed  carbuncle  ;  this  is  the  name  by  which  it  is  designated 
7* 


78  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

in  the  Bible  as  having  adorned  the  breast  of  the  high  priest  of 
the  Jews.  (Ex.  xxviii.  18.)  Topazes  are  precious  stones,  of  a 
bright  golden  yellow,  very  much  used  in  jewelry ;  the  Oriental 
topazes,  of  a  lemon-colored  hue,  are  particularly  prized.  The 
sapphire  is  generally  blue ;  the  Oriental  sapphire,  for  example, 
which  is  the  most  renowned,  is  of  a  beautiful  sky  blue. 

Moreover,  almost  all  the  rivers  of  Indo  China  contain  particles 
of  gold,  which  are  collected  by  the  washing  of  the  sands :  these 
being  violently  agitated  in  a  basin  of  water,  the  gold,  which  is 
heavier,  settles  at  the  bottom,  while  the  sand  is  swept  away  by 
the  water.  In  this  manner  considerable  quantities  of  gold  are 
obtained.  Of  all  the  countries  in  the  world,  the  peninsula  of 
Malacca  is  the  richest  in  pewter :  this  is  also  procured  by  wash- 
ing the  sands  which  contain  it,  vast  deposits  of  which  are  found 
in  this  country. 

Vegetation,  favored  by  a  hot  climate  and  a  well-watered  soil, 
displays  in  this  country  extraordinary  vigor.  Indo  China  pos- 
sesses the  same  vegetables  as  India ;  for  these  two  countries,  lying 
adjacent  to  each  other,  are  very  similar  in  climate  and  productions. 
We  will  not  here  repeat  the  list  of  plants  which  are  common  to 
both,  but  add  only  the  names  of  a  few,  which,  although  found  in 
India,  are  particularly  abundant  in  »Indo  China.  Such  are 
the  iron  wood,  a  tree  so  called  on  account  of  its  hardness  and 
weight,  and  which  is  used  in  the  construction  of  weapons  of  war, 
agricultural  implements,  or  furniture  ;  and  the  ehony  wood,  a  tree 
valuable  for  its  hardness  and  its  rich  black  color,  susceptible  of  a 
fine  polish.  The  ebony  only  acquires  this  fine  color  gradually, 
with  age,  and  then  only  in  the  heart  of  the  tree,  the  rest  of  the 
trunk  being  of  a  whitish  hue,  and  not  very  hard.  Other  hard 
woods,  dyed  black,  are  now  often  substituted  for  ebony ;  but  it 
was  formerly  used  very  extensively  for  the  most  delicate  and 
costly  furniture. 

Among  the  alimentary  plants,  which  abound  in  this  peninsula, 
are  the  ignames  and  the  ananas.  From  these  countries,  more- 
over, is  procured  a  very  useful  substance,  introduced  into  com- 
merce within  a  few  years,  the  origin  of  which  is  now  known  ;  this 
is  the  gutta  percha,  a  species  of  gum  of  a  grayish  white,  very  solid, 
and  possessing  a  certain  flexibility  ;  it  is  now  much  employed  in 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA, 


79 


the  manufacture  of  straps,  tubes,  and  vessels  of  every  descrip- 
tion, and  especially  for  enveloping  the  iron  wires  of  submarine 
telegraphs,  to  preserve  them  from  contact  with  the  water. 

The  animals  of  Indo  China  are  also  the  same  as  those  of  India. 
In  the  former  are  found  more  white  elephants,  which  are  very 
rare,  and  are  the  object  of  an  extraordinary  veneration.  As  the 
souls  of  great  princes  are  supposed  to  inhabit  the  bodies  of  white 
elephants,  the  King  of  Siam  offers  rich  rewards  to  the  huntsmen 
who  are  so  fortunate  as  to  take  them.  A  palace  is  reserved  for 
these  revered  animals ;  each  has  a  separate  stable  and  ten  keepers 
for  its  servants.  The  tusks  of  the  males  are  adorned  with  golden 
bells,  a  chain  of  golden  network  covers  the  tops  of  their  heads, 
and  they  are  served  in  golden  dishes;  the  king  never  mounts 
them,  from  the  fear  of  seating  himself  upon  a  majesty  no  less 
adorable  than  his  own.     The  rhinoceros,  after  the  elephant  the 


Rhinoceros. 


most  powerful  of  terrestrial  mammalia,  may  often  be  encountered 
in  the  vast  forests  of  this  peninsula.  The  horn  which  it  bears  on 
its  nose,  and  which  is  only  attached  to  the  skin,  is  rarely  used  by 
it  as  a  defensive  weapon ;  for  this  peaceable  animal,  although  very 
fierce  and  intractable,  never  makes  an  attack.  It  subsists  on 
leaves  and  roots,  living  solitarily  in  the  depths  of  the  woods,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  rivers,  where  it  is  fond  of  wallowmg  in  the 
mud.    It  is  heavy,  and  has  short  legs  j.  but  if  any  thing  occurs  to 


80  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

arouse  its  fears  or  its  rage,  it  bounds  forward  with  fearful  swift- 
ness, overthrowing  and  trampling  under  foot  every  thing  which  it 
meets  in  its  path,  and  uttering  such  cries  as  cause  the  most  iu- 
trepid  hunter  to  quake  with  fear.  But  as  its  sight  is  poor,  and  as 
it  always  darts  forward  in  a  straight  line,  one  can  escape  it  by 
slightly  deviating  from  his  course,  if  mounted  on  a  fleet  horse. 
As,  on  the  other  hand,  its  sense  of  smell  is  very  acute,  it  cannot 
be  approached  within  musket  shot,  except  by  advancing  in  the 
direction  contrary  to  the  wind,  and  then  can  only  be  killed  by  a 
blow  on  the  head,  owing  to  the  uncommonly  thick  skin,  which 
covers  its  body  like  a  species  of  cuirass.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
countries  where  these  enormous  animals  are  found  hunt  them  for 
the  sake  of  their  horn,  to  which  they  attach  marvellous  proper- 
ties, for  the  flesh,  which  is  esteemed  very  good,  and  for  the  skin, 
of  which  excellent  carriage  braces  are  made. 

Another  curious  mammal,  which  abounds  especially  in  the  pen- 
insula of  Malacca,  is  the  tapir — an  animal  not  unlike  the  hog. 


'^I'liiiii " 


Tapir. 

although  much  larger ;  it  differs  from  it,  however,  in  its  brown, 
or  black,  and  nearly  bare  skin,  in  the  form  of  its  claws,  and  par- 
ticularly in  its  snout,  which  is  fleshy,  and  movable  in  every  direc- 
tion, and  of  which  it  avails  itself,  with  much  skill,  in  tearing  up 
from  the  river  the  roots  of  the  aquatic  plants  which  supply  its  nour- 
ishment. It  is  a  sullen  and  timid  animal,  inhabiting  forests,  and 
particularly  partial  to  damp  places,  swimming  very  well,  and  in 
case  of  necessity  capable  of  defending  itself  from  its  enemies. 
Its  flesh  is  unpalatable ;  but  its  skin,  when  dried,  becomes  very 
hard,  and  may  be  turned  to  account.  In  the  wildest  forests  of 
Indo  China,  or  of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  travellers  sometimes 
encounter  the  curious  animal  known  by  the  name  of  orang 
outang,  of  all  the  monkeys  the  one  which  most  resembles  man, 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA. 


81 


owing  to  which  circumstance  it  has  received  its  name,  signifying 
man  of  the  woods.  They  are  not  easily  procured,  and  will  soon, 
probably,  have  vanished  from  the  face  of  the  earth.     Monkeys 


Orang  Oidang. 


of  the  common  species  are  extremely  numerous  in  Indo  China ; 
one  variety  of  white  monheys  is  almost  as  much  venerated  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Siam  as  the  white  elephants.  Birds  are  very 
numerous,  and  many  of  them  are  clothed  with  magnificent 
plumage. 

The  population  belongs  both  to  the  Mongolian,  or  yellow  race, 
and  to  the  Malay  race,  (which  derives  its  name  from  Malacca,) 
characterized  by  a  reddish-brown  skin.  The  greater  part  of  the 
inhabitants  are  idolaters,  and  worship  the  false  god  Booddha ; 
those  of  the  Malay  race  are  mostly  Mahometans.  At  the  west, 
in  the  Birman  empire,  there  are  flourishing  Protestant  missions  ; 
at  the  east,  in  the  countries  of  Siam  and  Cochin  China,  are  also 
numerous  Catholic  missions,  which,  although  frequently  persecut- 
ed, have  exercised  a  great  influence  in  this  country  for  two  cen- 
turies. 


82  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

5.  CoREA.  —  The  fifth  of  the  great  peninsulas  of  Asia  is 
Corea,  situated  between  the  Sea  of  Japan  on  the  east,  and  the 
Yellow  Sea  on  the  west ;  the  Strait  of  Corea  separates  it  from 
the  Islands  of  Japan :  this  country  is  almost  entirely  barred  and 
unknown  to  the  Europeans.  Its  productions  appear  to  be  the 
same  as  those  of  China,  of  which  we  shall  soon  speak  particu- 
larly. On  the  coasts,  the  fishery,  especially  that  of  pearls,  seems 
to  be  very  profitable.  The  population,  of  the  same  race  as  the 
Chinese,  —  that  is  to  say,  Mongolian,  or  yellow,  —  is  governed  by 
a  king  dependent  on  the  Emperor  of  China.  We  will  enlarge  no 
further  upon  a  country  so  little  known. 

6.  Kamtchatka.  —  The  sixth  and  last  of  the  great  penin- 
sulas of  Asia  is  Kamtchathay  of  whiell  little  was  known  until 
within  150  years,  through  the  voyages  of  Captain  Behring.  It 
takes  its  name  from  a  river  which  traverses  it.  It  terminates  at 
the  south  in  Cape  Lopatka,  The  aspect  of  this  country  is  moun- 
tainous and  gloomy,  the  climate  harsh  and  cold,  the  vegetation 
poor  and  little  varied ;  pastures,  however,  are  found  there,  pota- 
toes thrive  in  some  places,  and  forests  of  birch  and  fir  trees  are 
quite  abundant. 

The  animals  of  Kamtchatka  are  its  most  remarkable  fea- 
ture. The  natives  live  almost  entirely  on  the  product  of  the 
fishery  or  the  chase.  The  sea  furnishes  them  with  morses  and 
seals,  for  whose  teeth,  skin,  and  tendons  they  find  a  use,  and  whose 


Ermine. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  ASIA.  83 

flesh  supplies  them  with  food,  whilst  the  fat  affords  them  oil  for 
their  long  winter  nights.  Great  quantities  of  other  fish  are  also 
caught  on  these  coasts.  In  the  forests  of  this  cold  country  are 
found  some  of  the  finest  fur-bearing  animals,  such  as  the  black  or 
silver  fox,  whose  skin  is  sometimes  valued  at  two  hundred  dollars ; 
the  sable,  a  small  animal  of  the  size  of  a  squirrel,  whose  beautiful 
dark-brown  skin  is  prized  very  highly ;  the  ermine,  another  ani- 
mal of  the  same  family,  whose  fur,  of  a  dazzling  wJiite,  has 
long  been  used  to  ornament  the  robes  of  dignitaries  and  ladies ; 
also  the  wolf,  and  the  bear,  which  the  Kamtchatdales  fearlessly 
pursue. 

Another  animal,  much  appreciated  by  the  Kamtchatdales,  is 
the  economical  field  mouse,  a  very  interesting  species  of  rat. 
These  animals  subsist  on  roots;  they  are  careful  to  select  the 
most  excellent,  skilfully  cut  them  up,  dry  them,  and  afterwards 
transport  them  to  their  storehouses  —  a  kind  of  cellars  arched  with 
moss,  where  they  dispose  them  in  perfect  order.  It  is  a  piece  of 
good  fortune  to  the  natives  to  discover  these  storehouses,  in  which 
they  sometimes  find  thirty  or  forty  pounds  of  roots  ;  but  they  al- 
ways leave  behind  a  portion  of  the  provisions,  as  we  leave  a  rem- 
nant of  the  honey  in  our  beehives.  The  field  mice  seem  to  foresee 
the  rainy  summers,  whose  inundations  must  inevitably  submerge 
their  burrows  ;  and  they  are  then  seen  to  assemble  in  the  spring 
in  innumerable  companies,  and  to  emigi'ate  in  a  mass,  directing 
their  course  westward.  Nothing  impedes  them — neither  lakes, 
rivers,  nor  mountains.  They  march  straight  forward,  halting  at 
sunrise  to  rest  during  the  day,  and  resuming  their  journey  at 
nightfall.  In  the  month  of  July  they  pause,  having  in  three 
months  accomplished  a  journey  of  seven  hundred  leagues.  On 
setting  out,  their  columns  are  so  numerous  that  it  takes  them  two 
hours  to  defile ;  but  on  their  return,  which  occurs  the  same  year, 
in  the  month  of  October,  the  foxes,  ermines,  birds  of  prey,  and 
excessive  fatigue  have  carried  off  nearly  half  of  them.  The 
Kamtchatdales,  far  from  harming,  aid  them  in  every  possible  way, 
and  rejoice  to  see  them  return,  knowing  from  experience  that  the 
foxes  and  sables,  which  seek  to  make  them  their  prey,  will  fol- 
low in  great  numbers,  and  become,  in  their  turn,  the  prize  of  the 
hunters. 


84 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 


But  the  most  useful  of  all  animals  to  the  Kamtchadales  are 
the  Siberian  dogs,  which  they  employ  in  the  winter  to  draw 
their  sledges :  these  dogs,  which  greatly  resemble  the  wolf,  and 
bay  like  him,  run  with  extreme  agihty.  A  good  dog  can  draw 
as  much  as  160  pounds,  and  accomplish  10  or  12  leagues  a  day, 


Siberian  Dog. 

however  long  the  journey  may  be.  Twelve  of  them  are  usually 
required  to  complete  the  equipment  of  a  sledge.  The  best 
trained  and  the  most  intelligent  is  placed  at  the  head,  and  on 
him  depends  the  safety  of  the  traveller,  for  he  is  expected  to 
lead  his  companions  in  the  desired  direction,  and  prevent  their 
wandering  from  the  path  to  follow  the  tracks  of  animals,  imprinted 
on  the  snow.  This  animal's  capacity  for  subsisting  on  fish,  and 
for  running  over  the  snow  without  sinking,  makes  it  preferable 
to  all  others,  and  especially  to  the  horse,  which  it  would  be  dif- 
ficult to  maintain  in  these  cold  countries  of  the  north.  In  sum- 
mer, also,  these  dogs  are  sometimes  used  for  towing  the  boats 
which  ascend  the  rivers;  but  they  then  suffer  much  from  the 
heat,  and  from  the  attacks  of  mosquitoes  or  venomous  gnats. 
The  population  belongs  to  the  Mongolian  race.     The  Kam- 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  ASIA.  85 

tchatdales  are  small  of  stature,  have  a  large  head,  wide  mouth, 
prominent  cheek  bones,  and  a  scanty  supply  of  black  hair.  They 
clothe  themselves  in  skins,  and  live  in  excessive  filth.  They  sub- 
sist chiefly  on  fish,  and  drink  with  apparent  relish  the  fat  of  the 
seal  and  tlie  oil  of  the  whale.  Their  dwellings  consist  of  a  sum- 
mer and  a  winter  house.  The  former  is  a  wooden  cabin,  covered 
with  a  turf  roof,  and  supported  on  posts  a  dozen  feet  above  the 
ground.  The  latter  is  a  large  hole,  five  feet  in  depth,  surmounted 
by  a  frame,  in  the  top  of  which  is  an  aperture,  which  serves  at 
the  same  time  for  a  window,  door,  and  chimney.  They  pass  in 
and  out  by  means  of  a  species  of  ladder  placed  against  the  open- 
ing. There  is  a  door  for  the  women  on  one  side  of  the  cabin,  by 
the  use  of  which,  however,  the  men  would  be  disgraced.  The 
interior  of  these  habitations  is  filled  with  clouds  of  smoke,  and 
impregnated  with  a  shocking  odor.  The  air  and  light  scarcely 
penetrate  within,  and  a  whole  family  is  there  confined  in  the 
same  enclosure,  with  garments  of  skin,  dogs,  and  provisions  of 
meat  and  fish,  often  in  a  corrupt  state.  The  Russian  merchants, 
who  every  year  resort  to  this  country  in  search  of  furs,  give  in 
exchange,  to  the  inhabitants,  utensils  of  iron  and  copper,  and  va- 
rious products  of  civilization,  which  are  regarded  by  the  poor 
Kamtchatdales  as  unparalleled  wonders. 

With  respect  to  their  religion,  they  are  almost  all  converted  to 
Christianity,  although  preserving  a  great  number  of  their  ancient 
superstitions,  and  especially  the  terror  of  schamans,  or  sooth- 
sayers. 

Sect.  3.  Mountains  of  Asia.  —  Having  acquainted  our- 
selves with  the  peninsulas  of  Asia,  which  are  certainly  one  of 
the  most  interesting  portions  of  this  great  continent,  its  mountains 
next  claim  our  notice. 

The  whole  centre  of  Asia  forms  a  high  country,  of  almost 
twice  the  extent  of  Europe,  generally  rocky,  sandy,  or  barren,  in 
many  places  very  elevated  and  cold,  and  surrounded  on  all  sides 
by  the  vast  chains  of  mountains  which  will  now  engage  our  at- 
tention. 

1.  Himalaya.  —  The  high  country  of  Central  Asia  is  bor- 
dered on  the  south  by  an  immense  cliain  of  mountains,  which, 
like  a  gigantic  wall,  separate  it  from  the  hot  and  luxuriant  plains 
8 


I 


B6 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 


of  India ;  these  are  the  Himalaya  Mountains.  This  chain,  whose 
name  signifies  the  abode  of  snows,  includes  the  loftiest  mountains 
in  the  world ;  Mount  Kunchinginga,  for  example,  rises  more  than 
28,000  feet ;  (this  is  about  double  the  height  of  Mont  Blanc,  the 
highest  mountain  in  Europe.)  All  the  peaks  of  the  Himalaya, 
as  their  name  indicates,  are  covered  with  eternal  snows  ;  but  on 
their  sides  and  at  their  base  is  found  the  most  superb  vegetation ; 
among  other  plants,  forests  of  horse-chestnuts^  those  beautiful 
trees  which  have  been  transplanted  to  tliis  country  to  ornament 
our  gardens  and  avenues,  and  rhododendrons,  magnificent  flowers, 
numerous  varieties  of  which  have  been  discovered  on  the  sides 
of  the  Himalaya  at  heights  where  in  Europe  are  found  only 
eternal  snows. 

Himalaya,  in  its  beautiful  valleys,  enjoys  a  temperate  and 
extremely  healthful  climate.  It  abounds  in  gold  ;  but  it  is  espe- 
cially remarkable  for  its  animals  —  for  instance,  its  superb  pea- 
cocks, which  are  found  in  a  wild  state,  and  wander  at  large  in 


Peacock. 


the  forests,  as  likewise  in  almost  every  part  of  India.  This 
bird,  now  domesticated  in  our  poultry  yards,  is  noted  for  the 
magnificence  displayed  in  the  feathers  of  its  tail,  when  spread 
in  the  form  of  a  fan.    Among  the  ornaments  of  these  mountaixis 


THE    CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  87 

are  the  resplendent  lophophores,  large  and  magnificent  birds, 
remarkable  for  their  superb  crest  or  plume,  and  their  neck  of 
dazzling  green,  beneath  which  gleam  many  rings  of  gold  and 
azure,  while  their  wings  of  blue,  blended  with  emerald  green,  fold 
over  their  green  back  in  lines  of  purple  and  gold. 

But  the  most  interesting  animal  of  Himalaya  is  the  musk,  a 


Mtcsk. 


charming  creature,  of  the  size  of  a  young  roebuck,  without  horns, 
covered  with  rough,  brown,  or  tawny  hair,  contenting  itself  only 
on  the  rocky  summits  of  the  highest  mountains,  in  the  midst  of 
rocks  and  precipices,  where  it  displays  all  the  lightness  and  agility 
of  the  chamois ;  it  seems  to  be  even  more  wild,  and  to  prefer  the 
night  to  the  day  for  its  excursions.  This  timid  animal,  which  is 
found  on  the  icy  summits  of  almost  all  the  mountains  of  upper 
Asia,  is  the  object  of  an  incessant  pursuit,  on  account  of  its  very 
choice  perfume,  which  is  accumulated  in  a  kind  of  pouch,  placed 
under  the  body  of  the  male.  This  substance,  known  under  the 
name  of  musk,  is  almost  solid,  clotted,  of  a  blackish  brown,  and 
of  an  extremely  lively  and  penetrating  odor,  which  it  communi- 
cates to  every  object  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  It  was 
formerly  much  more  in  use  than  at  present  in  perfumery,  and 
among  persons  of  high  rank ;  in  pharmacy,  it  is  introduced  into 
the  composition  of  many  remedies.  It  is  often  exported  to  us 
greatly  adulterated  by  mixtures  of  dried  blood,  resins,  &c.,  the 
whole,  however,  enveloped  in  the  pouch  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  taken  from  the  animal.  The  best  musk  comes  from 
Tonguin  and  Cliina. 


88  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

2.  The  Sinechan.  — ■  The  Sinechan,  or  Mountains  of  Indo 
China,  almost  as  high  as  the  Hunalaya,  form  a  vast  group, 
whence  issue,  like  the  fingers  from  the  hand,  five  principal  chains, 
which  descend  towards  the  south  of  the  peninsula,  separating  the 
four  rivers  and  the  four  great  valleys,  of  which  this  country  is 
composed.  These  mountains,  as  we  have  already  seen,  furnish 
gold,  rubies,  topazes,  and  sapphires.  Their  slopes  are  covered  with 
almost  impenetrable  forests,  containing  all  the  plants  of  the  warm 
countries,  peopled  by  an  incredible  quantity  of  parrots,  and  birds 
of  magnificent  plumage,  but  incapable  of  song ;  monkeys,  which 
often  cause  great  havoc  in  the  plantations ;  hats  of  all  kinds,  some 


of  which  are  very  large,  and  concerning  which  absurd  stories 
were  formerly  related,  purporting  that  they  sucked  the  blood  of 
animals  and  men  whom  they  surprised  asleep.  It  is  true  that 
some  of  them  destroy  great  numbers  of  little  birds,  and  commit 
such  ravages  in  the  orchards,  that,  in  order  to  secure  the  preser- 
vation of  the  fruit,  it  must  be  surrounded  by  nets.  ■  The  vampyre, 
for  example,  the  form  of  whose  head  has  given  it  the  surname  of 
flying  dog,  is  a  mammal,  whose  body  is  one  foot  in  length,  and 
which  measures  five  feet  from  the  extremity  of  one  wing  to  that 
of  the  other.  The  vampyres  are  generally  fierce,  living  in  the 
wildest  portions  of  forests,  where,  during  the  day,  they  hang  from 
the  trees  by  the  hind  feet,  and  cling  so  tenaciously  that,  if  slain  in 
this  position,  they  do  not  fall.  When  young,  they  are  eaten  by 
the  inhabitants;  they  have  then  a  delicate  flavor,  but  are  too 
strongly  perfumed  with  musk  to  suit  the  taste  of  Europeans.  It 
is  a  curious  and  interesting  circumstance,  that,  in  many  species 
of  this  family,  the  females  have  pouches  on  each  side  of  the  body, 
in  which  they  place  their  young,  in  order  to  transport  them  with 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  89 

ease  when  flying ;  for  they  never  separate  from  them  mitil  they 
are  large  enough  to  take  care  of  themselves. 

3.  The  Yunling.  —  The  Tunling,  or  Chinese  Alps,  sepa- 
rate Upper  Asia  from  China  proper,  where  they  send  forth  a 
great  number  of  ramifications.  The  Yunling  contains  abundant 
mines  of  rock  salt,  which  have  long  been  worked  by  the  Chinese. 
Farther  down,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  they  have  excavated 
thousands  of  pits  of  great  depth,  from  which  salt  water  is  obtained, 
and  as  a  great  number  of  these  pits  emit  hydrogen  gas,  they  set 
fire  to  it,  and  employ  it  in  distilling  from  the  salt  water  the  crys- 
tal salt.  The  vegetation  of  these  mountains  is  little  known  to  us ; 
it  is  that  of  the  temperate  countries.  We  are,  however,  familiar 
with  some  of  the  beautiful  birds  which  sport  in  the  forests  of  these 
mountains,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the  golden  pheasant 


Golden  Pheasant. 

of  China ;  its  body  is  of  a  fiery  red ;  hanging  backwards  on  its 
head  it  has  a  tuft  of  golden  yellow ;  its  neck  is  encircled  by  a 
magnificent  orange-colored  collar,  spotted  with  black ;  the  upper 
part  of  its  back  is  green,  and  the  lower  part  yellow ;  the  wings  of  a 
lively  red,  with  a  beautiful  blue  spot ;  and  the  tail  very  long, 
brown,  and  dappled  with  gray. 

4.    The   Khin-gan    Mountains.  —  The   Khin-gan  moun- 
8* 


90  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

tains,  or  Mountains  of  Mantchooria,  north  of  the  preceding  chain, 
also  extend  ramifications  even  to  the  Sea  of  Japan.  Their 
sides  are  covered  with  immense  forests,  similar  to  those  of  all 
cold  countries,  and  present  especially  maples,  firs,  and  birch  trees. 
Thence,  also,  is  obtained  the  rhubarb,  the  only  production  of  Up- 
per Asia  which  is  the  object  of  a  universal  commerce.  Rhubarb 
is  a  plant  with  enormous  leaves,  which  grows  in  all  these  moun- 
tains in  the  Himalaya,  and  also  in  the  Island  of  Socotra,  where 
the  best  is  found.  Its  root  is  of  a  lively  and  brilliant  yellow,  and 
is  esteemed  an  excellent  cathartic.  The  rhubarb  of  Moscow,  so 
called  because  it  is  exported  from  Russia,  is,  next  to  that  of  Soco- 
tra, the  most  esteemed  in  medicine,  being  preferable  to  that  of 
China. 

5.  The  Yablonnoi  Mountains.  —  The  Yablonnoi  Moun- 
tains, west  of  the  preceding,  border  Upper  Asia  on  the  north-east 
as  far  as  Lake  Baikal.  These  are  very  cold  mountains,  where 
are  found  some  silver  mines  and  fur-clad  animals.  The  argali  is 
also  hunted  there  —  an  enormous  wild  sheep  of  the  size  of  a 
deer,  and  which  is  regarded,  together  with  the  muffloo,  as  the 
progenitor  of  all  the  domestic  sheep.  It  has  very  large,  strong, 
and  triangular  horns.  It  inhabits  the  cold  regions  of  Upper  Asia, 
where  it  is  sought  for  the  sake  of  its  flesh  and  fat.  It  may  be 
seen  leaping  from  rock  to  rock  with  incredible  swiftness  and  pro- 
digious strength,  and  it  would  be  impossible  to  overtake  it,  if  it 
did  not  frequently  pause  in  the  midst  of  its  career  to  regard  the 
hunter  with  a  stupid  air,  and  wait  until  within  the  reach  of  the 
latter  before  recommencing  its  flight 

6.  The  Altai  Mountains.  —  The  Altai  Mountains  (which 
are  divided  into  the  Great  and  Little  Altai)  are  situated  west  of 
the  preceding.  These  are  also  very  cold  mountains,  to  which  the 
fir  tree  gives  a  physiognomy  similar  to  the  severe  aspect  of  the 
high  Alps.  But  the  summits  of  all  these  mountains  of  the  north 
of  Upper  Asia,  are  generally  rounded,  and  consequently  of  a 
monotonous  and  gloomy  appearance.  The  Altai  are  chiefly 
remarkable  for  their  immense  mineral  riches,  their  deposits  of 
auriferous  sands,  from  the  simple  washing  of  which  particles  of 
gold  are  extracted.  One  proprietor,  in  the  third  year  of  his  ex- 
ploration, is  said  to  have  realized,  in  a  single  summer,  a  net  profit 


THE  CONTINENT   OP  ASIA.  91 

of  nearly  two  millions.  All  the  gold  seekers  affirm  that  the  want 
of  workmen  alone  prevents  their  doubling  and  trebling  their 
gains.  In  1830,  the  product  of  the  mines  of  this  country  amounted 
to  only  three  miUions ;  fourteen  years  after,  it  had  increased  to 
sixty  millions. 

Grants  of  the  mines  are  made  by  the  Russian  government,  the 
ruling  power  of  this  country,  for  the  space  of  twelve  years,  to  men 
of  all  nations ;  each  lot,  however,  is  of  small  extent.  The  wash- 
ing of  the  sands  is  performed  under  the  supervision  of  govern- 
ment agents,  and  thousands  of  workmen  —  criminals  condemned 
by  the  law,  —  daily  deliver  submissively  into  the  hands  of  an  in- 
spector the  treasures  which  they  have  collected. 

The  exploration  of  the  auriferous  sand  is  generally  very  easy : 
these  deposits  being  usually  level  with  the  soil,  or  only  covered 
with  a  thin  layer  of  vegetable  earth,  it  is  rarely  necessary  to 
dig  deep. 

7.  Thian-Siian  Mountains.  —  The  Thian-Shan  Moun- 
tains, west  of  the  preceding,  little  elevated  and  but  little  known, 
are  especially  remarkable  for  their  numerous  cattle  and  wild 
horses,  as  also  for*  the  onager,  or  wild  ass,  which  is  there  encoun- 
tered, and  which  is  now  only  found  in  its  native  freedom  in  this 
portion  of  Upper  Asia.  The  inhabitants  of  the  country  (the  Kal- 
mucks) regard  it  as  excellent  game,  and  hunt  it  for  its  flesh,  and 
for  the  profit  derived  from  its  hide,  of  which  shagreen  is  prepared 
— a  very  hard  species  of  skin,  covered  with  little  round  dots,  which 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  scabbards,  and  in  bookbinding. 
No  animal  treads  the  borders  of  precipices,  or  the  rocky  defiles, 
with  so  sure  a  foot ;  it  runs  with  extreme  swiftness,  and  sustains 
this  pace  longer  than  the  best  horses.  Finally,  its  sobriety  would 
render  it  a  perfect  animal,  if  it  could  be  tamed,  so  as  to  be 
mounted  without  danger ;  but  unfortunately  this  is  not  possible. 
The  onagers  live  in  innumerable  troops,  and  defend  themselves 
courageously  against  ferocious  beasts.  In  order  to  take  them, 
nets  are  employed,  which  are  spread  in  those  places  where  they 
are  in  the  habit  of  going  to  drink. 

Two  chains  of  mountains  form  the  western  border  of  Upper 
Asia,  and  connect  Soongaria  with  Himalaya :  these  are  the  Mong- 
Taghy  (or  mountains  of  ice,  at  the  north,)  and  the  Bolor-Tagh, 


§3  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATUBE. 

(or  mountain  of  clouds,)  which  at  the  south  unites  with  Him* 
alaya. 

8.  The  Mong-Tagh.  —  The  Mong-Tagh  contains  also  many 
wild  animals,  and  in  particular  the  djigktai,  or  hemione,  a  charm- 
ing animal,  which  resembles  the  horse  and  wild  ass  in  its  propor- 
tions, while  in  form  it  compares  with  the  mule,  although  it  has 
more  slender  legs  and  a  more  graceful  carriage.  Its  hair  is  of  a 
dun  color,  with  a  mane  and  a  black  line  on  its  back.  It  lives  in 
companies,  often  composed  of  more  than  a  hundred ;  it  is  very 
vigorous,  and  can  accomplish,  it  is  said,  a  distance  of  60  leagues 
without  rest ;  it  runs  much  faster  than  a  horse,  and  when  the 
inhabitants  of  these  countries  wish  to  take  it  for  the  sake  of  its 
flesh,  which  they  find  excellent,  or  to  possess  themselves  of  its 
hide,  they  are  obliged  to  spread  snares,  or  lie  in  wait  for  it,  (by 
night,)  and  kill  it  with  a  musket.  No  one  has  ever  succeeded  in 
domesticating  it.  The  Jardin  des  Plantes,  at  Paris,  contains 
several  of  them. 

9.  The  Bolor-Tagh.  —  The  Bohr  Mountains  are  but  littl6 
known.  We  shall  specify  only  a  single  animal  peculiar  to 
them,  whose  appearance  and  form  are  very  singular.  This  is  a 
small  species  of  ox,  the  yack,  called  also  horse-tailed  buffalo,  and 
grunting  cow  of  Tartary,  on  account  of  a  certain  deep,  monoto- 
nous, and  swine-like  grunting.  The  yack  has  on  its  shoulders  a 
hump  garnished  with  a  tuft  of  hair,  still  longer  and  thicker  than 
that  which  covers  its  whole  body,  and  hangs  almost  on  the 
ground,  which  gives  it  a  very  remarkable  aspect.  The  yack,  in 
its  wild  state,  is  only  found  in  the  coldest  latitudes  of  the  moun- 
tains of  tliis  portion  of  Asia.     It  is  a  ferocious  animal,  which 


Yack. 


delights  in  the  shade  of  forests  bordering  on  rivers,  where  it  is 
fond  of  bathing  and  swimming  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  and 
wallowing  in  the  mire.     The  Tartars  have  succeeded  in  turning 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  93 

it,  and  nourish  themselves  with  its  milk,  of  which  they  also  make 
an  excellent  butter,  which  is  despatched  in  sacks  of  skin  through- 
out Upper  Asia.  They  employ  this  animal  for  carrying  burdens, 
and  for  drawing  wagons,  or  the  plough.  Its  flesh  is  esteemed, 
and  its  hair  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse  stuffs ;  but  its 
tail,  especially,  is  of  great  commercial  value.  Of  it  fly  flaps  are 
made  ;  and  the  Chinese,  after  having  dyed  the  hair  red,  use  it 
in  the  form  of  plumes  to  ornament  their  caps ;  among  the 
Turks,  these  tails,  attached  to  the  end  of  a  lance,  become  the 
ensigns  of  the  dignity  of  the  pacha,  (governor  of  a  province ;)  this 
dignity  is  of  greater  or  less  importance  in  proportion  to  the  num- 
ber of  these  tails,  which  he  who  is  invested  with  it  is  entitled  to 
have  borne  before  him ;  thus  they  say,  a  pacha  with  two,  with 
three  tails,  &c. 

In  Western  Asia  are  many  other  chains  of  mountains,  of  which 
we  propose  to  mention  the  principal. 

10.  The  Ural  Mountains.  —  Of  the  Ural  Mountains,  be- 
tween Europe  and  Asia,  so  rich  in  their  jewels  and  precious 
metals,  we  have  already  made  sufficient  mention. 

11.  The  Caucasus.  —  The  Caucasus  stretches  from  the  Cas- 
pian to  the  Black  Sea,  like  an  immense  wall,  which  can  only  be 
surmounted  in  three  places,  at  the  two  extremities,  and  towards 
the  centre  by  means  of  a  defile,  where  a  band  of  a  few  hundred 
men  would  be  sufficient  to  arrest  an  entire  army.  The  highest 
peaks  are  covered  with  eternal  snows ;  thus  it  is  called  m  that 
country  by  a  name  signifying  icy  mane.  The  less  elevated  sum- 
mits are  crowned  by  excessively  thick  forests,  and  separated 
from  each  other  by  steep  and  narrow  valleys,  forming  complete 
abysses. 

The  Caucasus  presents,  at  its  two  extremities,  very  extraordi- 
nary phenomena ;  on  the  western  side  little  volcanoes,  which 
discharge  warm  mud ;  and  at  the  extremity,  which  borders  on 
the  Caspian  Sea,  pits  of  naphtha,  from  which  issues  inflamma- 
tory gas.  These  pits  are  a  source  of  wealth  to  the  country. 
The  flames  which  escape  from  them,  in  a  space  of  about  a  quar- 
ter of  a  league  in  circumference,  attract  thither  Hindoos  and 
Persians,  adherents  of  the  ancient  religion  of  Zoroaster,  who, 
worshipping  the  sun  and  fire,  there  hold  one  of  their  most  ancient 


M  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

and  revered  sanctuaries.  The  inhabitants  of  this  country  dig 
pits  30  feet  in  depth,  in  which  the  oil  of  naphtha  gradually  col- 
lects in  considerable  quantities.  They  make  use  of  it  as  oil  for 
their  lamps  ;  it  even  supplies  the  place  of  wood,  which  is  very 
rare,  and  serves  to  heat  their  houses  and  cook  their  food.  For 
this  purpose  they  throw  upon  the  hearths  of  their  fireplaces  a  few 
handfuls  of  earth,  moistened  with  naphtha,  which  they  set  on  fire. 
It  lights  immediately ;  and  with  the  precaution  of  stirring  this 
mixture,  they  are  enabled  to  cook  their  food  more  quickly  than 
with  wood.  It  is  true  that  this  combustion  diffuses  a  thick  smoke 
and  a  very  disagreeable  odor ;  but  of  this  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country  do  not  seem  to  be  conscious. 

Many  cattle  are  raised  in  the  Caucasus,  and  on  the  highest 
summits  are  hunted  the  chamois  and  the  houquetin,  species  of 


Chamois. 

wild  goats,  very  difficult  of  approach  among  the  abrupt  rocks, 
which  are  their  favorite  haunts :  they  afford  a  most  excellent 
game. 

The  Caucasian  chain  forms,  as  it  were,  an  independent  coun- 
try by  itself,  where  the  men  and  women  are  generally  of  such 
remarkable  beauty,  that,  in  order  to  designate  our  white  race  by 
the  finest  specimens  which  it  presents,  we  denominate  it  the  Cau- 
casian race.  Unfortunately,  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Caucasus  have  extremely  rough  and  violent  manners ;  these 
terrible  mountaineers  often  descend  unexpectedly  upon  the  vil- 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  ASIA.  95 

lages  of  the  neighboring  plains,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off 
the  inhabitants,  whom  they  reduce  to  slavery,  or  only  restore  on 
payment  of  heavy  ransoms  ;  some  of  them  even  sell  their  wives, 
daughters,  or  sisters,  to  be  transplanted  to  the  seraglios  of  the 
Turks ;  for  it  is  from  these  mountains  that  the  latter  obtain 
their  most  beautiful  slaves.  Some  of  these  people  are  Chris- 
tians ;  the  greater  part  Mahometans  :  the  latter  have  for  many 
years  zealously  defended  their  independence  against  the  Rus- 
sians. 

12.  The  Taurus  Mountains.  —  South  of  the  Caucasus  is 
found  the  chain  of  Taurus,  whose  highest  summit,  Ararat, 
(10,000  feet  in  elevation,)  has  acquired  a  lasting  celebrity,  be- 
cause it  was  there  that  the  ark  of  Noah  rested,  after  the  deluge. 
The  name  of  this  patriarch  is  always  held  in  great  veneration  in 
this  country,  where  the  place  of  his  burial  is  yet  pointed  out. 
This  excessive  reverence  has  even  prevented  the  inhabitants 
(the  Armenians)  from  attempting  the  ascension  of  this  mountain. 
They  believe  that  the  remains  of  the  ark  are,  even  to  this  day, 
preserved  on  the  sununit  of  the  great  Ararat,  and  that  God  has, 
on  this  account,  prohibited  its  approach  to  all  mortals.  Of  later 
years  some  Russians  have  attained  its  summit,  in  spite  of  the  ice 
and  snow,  but  have  found  nothing  to  repay  them  for  the  ascent, 
save  a  magnificent  and  very  extensive  view  of  all  the  surround- 
ing countries. 

^\\Q  forests  of  Taurus  are  generally  very  fine,  and  often  pre- 
sent a  rare  spectacle  to  a  European  traveller.  The  cherry,  and 
the  greater  part  of  our  fruit  trees,  ai-e  natives  of  Asia  Minor. 
You  will  not,  therefore,  be  astonished  to  learn  that  the  most 
singular  combination  of  fine  fruit  trees  and  magnificent  building 
woods  may  frequently  be  observed  in  these  forests ;  plum  trees 
of  every  kind,  whose  red  and  yellow  plums  strew  the  ground,  by 
the  side  of  pines  and  larches ;  cherry,  pear  trees,  and  vines,  min- 
gle confusedly  with  birch,  maple,  and  chestnut  trees.  These 
rich  countries  would  be  in  every  respect  blessed,  if  the  enterprise 
and  wisdom  of  their  inhabitants  corresponded  with  the  lavish 
gifts  of  the  Creator. 

13.  Lebanon.  —  South  of  Taurus,  and  along  the  coasts  of 
the  Mediterranean,  we  encounter  the  double  chain  of  Lebanon, 


K 


96  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

SO  celebrated  in  our  sacred  writings,  that  holy  mountain  which 
Moses  so  earnestly  desired  to  contemplate  from  afar  before  he 
died,  (Deut.  iii.  25,)  so  majestic  in  its  rich  vesture  of  cedars,  so 
animated  by  its  innumerable  gushing  streams.  Lebanon,  whose 
name,  signifying  white  mountain,  is  suggestive  of  the  snow  which 
crowns  its  high  summits,  was  formerly  celebrated  for  its  cedars, 
a  very  fine  grained  and  almost  incorruptible  species  of  pine, 
of  which  the  famous  navigators  of  Tyre  made  masts  for  their 
ships,  and  of  which  King  Solomon  made  use,  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  magnificent  temple  of  the  true  God,  at  Jerusalem. 
But,  in  conformity  with  the  numerous  threats  pronounced  by 
our  Lord,  there  now  remain  but  feeble  vestiges  of  these  splen- 
did forests  of  cedar ;  seven  only,  upon  the  peak  usually  visited 
by  tourists,  are  remarkable  for  their  size  and  age,  and  might  even 
date  back  to  the  time  of  Solomon.  Accordingly,  every  year,  in 
the  month  of  June,  the  Catholic  populations  of  the  neighborhood 
ascend  to  the  cedars,  and  celebrate  mass  at  their  feet.  As  for  the 
Arabians,  their  veneration  for  these  trees  is  such,  that  they  at- 
tribute to  them  a  soul  and  a  wisdom  superior  even  to  the  instinct 
of  animals. 

The  less  lofty  summits  are  generally  rounded,  and  almost 
all  cultivated  to  the  very  top.  Thousands  of  walls  sustain,  on 
the  sides  of  the  mountain,  the  arable  land  otherwise  in  constant 
danger  of  falling  away.  The  slopes,  thus  fortified,  present  the 
appearance  of  a  staircase.  A  single  declivity  displays  from  100 
to  120  of  these  terraces,  completely  covered  with  grain,  vines, 
olive  and  mulberry  trees ;  and  here  and  there,  in  the  midst  of  these 
clusters  of  trees,  may  be  seen  peeping  forth  a  neat  white  village, 
perched  on  the  heights. 

Lebanon  is  composed  of  two  parallel  chains  —  Lebanon,  prop- 
erly so  called,  at  the  west,  and  Anti-Lebanon,  at  the  east,  of  which 
we  shall  speak  further,  in  connection  with  the  high  country  of 
Syria. 

Sect.  4.  Plateaus  op  Asia.  —  The  name  of  plateau  is 
given  to  a  country  the  whole  of  which  is  elevated,  and  more  or 
less  level.  Thus  the  immense  countries  of  Upper  Asia,  which 
are  encompassed  by  the  Himalaya,  the  Sinechan,  the  Yunling, 
&c.,  form  a  vast  table  land,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Oriental 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  97 

Plateau,  a  cold  country  of  deserts  and  steppes,  which  is  divided 
into  five  secondary  plateaus. 

1.  The  Plateau  of  Thib'et. —  Thih'et,  north  of  the  Him- 
alay'a,  is  the  highest  country  in  Asia,  and  probably  in  the  whole 
world;  habitations  are  found  there  at  heights  almost  equal  to 
that  of  Mont  Blanc.  The  aspect  of  this  country  is  generally 
very  mountainous,  rocky,  and  wild ;  travellers  for  whole  months 
descry  only  mountain  peaks,  intersected  with  narrow  defiles  and 
deep  abysses,  which  sometimes  render  it  necessary  to  traverse 
ledges  so  narrow,  that  the  horses  find  but  just  room  to  place 
their  feet. 

The  climate  is  generally  cold ;  the  winters  are  very  ipng,  and 
of  a  severity  of  which  we  have  no  idea.  The  sky  is  then  almost 
constantly  clear,  and  the  sun  dazzling ;  nevertheless,  it  is  so  cold, 
that  the  vapors  which  exhale  with  the  breath,  congealing  on  the 
beard  and  mustache,  there  form  icicles ;  great  precautions  must, 
be  taken  to  keep  one's  ears  and  nose  from  freezing ;  oflen  in  the 
direction  pursued  by  the  great  Chinese  caravan,  whidi  annually 
performs  a  pilgrimage  to  pay  homage  to  the  sovereign  pontiff  of 
Thib'et,  the  road  is  lined  with  bodies  of  animals  and  bones  of 
men,  that  have  perished  of  cold  ;  a  French  missionary  affirms  to 
have  seen  fifty  wild  oxen,  which  were  suddenly  frozen  and  caught 
in  ihe  ice,  while  attempting  to  swim  across  a  river. 

The  vegetation  is  generally  quite  poor ;  but  in  the  deep  and 
very  open  valleys,  or  along  the  rivers,  the  very  ardent  heat,  pecu- 
liar to  the  summer  of  these  regions,  not  only  permits  the  cultiva- 
tion of  our  grains  and  fruit  trees,  but  also  that  of  the  vine,  tobacco, 
herbaceous  cotton,  and  even  rice. 

The  animals  are  numerous  and  various.  Thibet  contains 
wolves,  bears,  tigers,  and  panthers,  which,  however,  only  venture 
from  India  during  the  summer  months.  There  are  found  almost 
all  kinds  of  domestic  animals  —  the  camel,  horse,  ox,  ass,  &c., 
besides  the  yack,  the  chevrotine  musk,  and  especially  the 
famous  Thibet  or  Cashmere  goat,  renowned  for  the  very  fine 
wool  which  grows  among  its  hair,  and  of  which  the  rich  and 
elegant  Cashmere  shawls  are  manufactured :  these  shawls,  which 
constitute  the  principal  ornament  of  the  women  of  the  East,  and 
^  which  are  also  worn  by  the  men,  in  the  form  of  turbans,  were 
9 


9&  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

formerly  sold  at  enormous  prices ;  but  since  the  introduction  into 
other  countries  of  flocks  of  Thibet  goats,  by  means  of  whose 
wool  these  fine  fabrics  have  been  imitated,  their  price  has 
greatly  diminished.  Thibet  produces  also  another  peculiar  goat, 
which  yields  the  hezoar,  a  stony  substance,  which  is  fonned  in  the 
intestines  of  this  animal.  This  substance  was  formerly  very 
much  used  in  medicine,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Upper  Asia  have 
so  much  faith  in  its  virtue,  that  every  Thibetan  carries  about  his 
person  a  little  bag  of  it,  as  a  talisman  against  all  evils.  The 
large-tailed  sheep  is  also  found  there,  w^hose  tail  is  of  such 
enormous  bulk,  that  it  sometimes  weighs  10  or  12  pounds.  The 
tails  of  some  of  these  animals  are  so  heavy,  that  in  a  certain  por- 
tion of  Africa  it  is  necessary  to  support,  them  in  a  little  wagon, 
which  the  animal  drags  along  after  it. 

The  population  of  the  Mongolian  race  are  indolent  and  very 
superstitious.  Infanticide,  especially  of  girls,  is  very  common 
among  them.  They  also,  it  is  said,  cook  their  dead,  and  throw 
the  body  in  fragments  to  dogs  and  vultures ;  those  who  do  not 
leave  money  enough  to  pay  the  manglers  are  thrown  into  the 
water,  burial  being  held  dishonorable.  They  are  idolaters,  wor- 
shippers of  the  god  Booddha ;  the  lamas,  or  priests,  compose  nearly 
a  third  of  the  population.  Their  habits,  and  many  ceremonies 
of  their  worship,  have  affinity  to  those  of  the  Catholic  church. 
They  have  two  supreme  pontiffs,  the  Dalai-Lama,  who  is  deemed 
an  incarnation  of  the  soul  of  Booddha,  and  the  Bandyin,  whose 
soul,  after  death,  is  supposed  to  be  translated  into  the  body  of  a 
child,  whom  the  lamas,  it  is  said,  have  the  power  of  recognizing 
by  mysterious  signs,  and  whom  they  then  bear  triumphantly  to 
his  capital,  where  he  must  be  brought  up  and  educated  by  the 
principal  lamas,  until  he  is  of  an  age  to  govern.  Some  Catholic 
missionaries  are  laboring,  in  the  midst  of  many  difficulties,  for  the 
conversion  of  these  idolatrous  people. 

2.  TooRKiSTAN  AND  MONGOLIA.  —  Toorhistan  and  Mongolia 
occupy,  in  their  greatest  length.  Eastern  Upper  Asia,  from  the 
Bolor  Mountains  even  to  the  Mountains  of  Mantchooria.  Farther 
than  the  eye  can  reach,  they  present  an  aspect  of  vast  sandy 
steppes,  or  rocky  deserts.  The  damp  valleys  and  the  borders  of 
the  lakes  ^e  Hie  only  portions  susceptible  of  cultivation.    The 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  99 

tielel)rated  Desert  of  Gobi,  composed  both  of  moving  sands  and 
fragments  of  flint,  is  more  than  600  leagues  in  length,  and  as 
many  as  150  in  width.  Even  in  the  desert  portions  of  Tartary, 
and  during  the  summer,  there  is  something  wild  and  profoundly 
gloomy  in  the  landscape ;  nought  but  vast  prairies  and  immense 
sohtudes  are  to  be  seen.  Sometimes,  however,  these  plains  pre- 
sent a  most  lively  and  animated  appearance.  Above  the  green- 
sward of  the  prairie  rise  tents  of  different  sizes ;  and  far  and 
wide,  the  eye  can  distinguish  only  immense  herds  of  oxen,  camels, 
and  horses :  and  in  the  midst  of  this  moving  tableau,  Tartars  on 
horseback,  who,  armed  with  long  poles,  gallop  from  side  to  side, 
striving  to  reassemble  the  scattered  members  of  the  flock ;  the 
next  day  this  landscape,  so  picturesque  and  full  of  life,  is  again 
but  a  vast  solitude ;  men,  herds,  and  habitations  have  all  van- 
ished; the  grass  of  the  plain  being  entirely  consumed,  they 
have  found  it  necessary  to  seek  elsewhere  new  and  fresh  pas- 
turage. 

As  these  plateaus  are  much  less  elevated  than  Thib'et,  their 
climate  is  a  little  less  severe,  though  still  very  cold ;  often,  after 
an  oppressive  heat,  a  terrible  hurricane  suddenly  bursts  forth, 
and  rain  descends,  mixed  with  snow,  which,  freezing,  causes  travel- 
lers to  perish,  absolutely  bereft  of  shelter,  in  the  midst  of  these 
immense  solitudes  of  the  Icmd  of  grass -— 2^  name  given  by  the  in- 
habitants to  these  uncultivated  regions. 

The  vegetation  of  these  plateaus  is  very  poor,  especially  in 
Mongolia.  There  the  inhabitants  have  much  difliculty  in  pro- 
curing food,  and  if  called,  like  the  missionaries,  to  travel  in  this 
strange  country,  one  would  be  obliged  every  morning,  in  order  to 
warm  himself  or  cook  his  food,  unless  he  would  live  literally  on 
cold  water  and  millet,  to  first  traverse  the  whole  prairie,  in  quest 
of  scanty  shrubs,  dried  grass,  and  manure,  which  last  is  the  only 
reliable  combustible  ;  he  would  then  be  enabled  to  boil  water  for 
his  tea,  the  invariable  basis  of  all  meals  among  the  Tartars,  and 
to  bake  in  the  ashes  the  cake  of  barley  or  millet,  the  only  grains 
which  the  country  produces.  In  the  fertile  and  cultivated  val- 
leys, the  vegetation  is  similar  to  that  of  Thib'et ;  there  are  found 
our  fruit  trees,  and  even  the  vine  ;  hemp  and  the  potato  succeed 
to  perfection.    With  the  animals,  which  are  very  numerous,  we 


100 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


are  already  acquainted :  they  include,  besides  our  domestic  ani- 
mals and  the  camel,  wild  cattle  and  horses,  the  argali,  the  onager, 
or  wild  ass,  the  yack,  the  djigktai,  or  hemione,  large-tailed  sheep, 
and  Cashmere  goats.  It  is  an  interesting  fact,  and  one  sugges- 
tive of  the  great  goodness  and  wisdom  of  Providence,  that  all, 
even  the  domestic  animals,  require  no  shelter,  and  do  not  appear 
to  suffer,  however  cold  it  may  be  ;  this  exposure  is  said  to  render 
tfe^m  even  more  vigorous,  whilst  the  heat  of  summer  debili- 
tates them  extremely.  Nature  has  provided  almost  all  of  them 
with  a  double  coat  of  fur,  the  hair  of  which  is  long,  thick,  and 
crispy.  As  in  Thibet,  wild  beasts  from  the  southern  countries 
also  roam  over  these  plateaus  during  the  heat  of  summer. 

The  only  mineral  worthy  of  mention  is  the  jade,  a  very  hard, 
white  stone,  veined  with  green  or  red,  of  which  vases,  sabre  han- 
dles, &c.,  are  made,  but  which  is  particularly  prized  by  the  Chi- 
nese on  account  of  certain  chimerical  virtues  which  they  attribute 
to  it :  they  believe,  for  example,  that  vessels  made  of  this  sub- 
stance break  in  pieces  when  poison  is  placed  in  them ;  that  frag- 


Mongol  Priest 


THE  CONTIKENT  OF  ASIA.  101 

ments  borne  about  their  persons  protect  them  from  lightning ;  and 
that  a  beverage  taken  in  a  cup  of  jade  cahns  the  irregular  palpi- 
tations of  the  heart :  the  stones  which  contain  the  fewest  spots 
and  veins  are  regarded  as  the  exclusive  property  of  the  Emperor 
of  China,  sovereign  of  all  these  countries  of  Central  Asia ;  and 
the  workmen  employed  in  search  of  them  are  obliged  to  remit 
■every  day  the  product  of  their  labors  into  the  hands  of  officers 
charged  to  receive  and  examine  them. 

The  population  of  the  yellow  race  is  composed  principally  of 
Mongols,  properly  so  called,  divided  into  triheSy  who  are  subject  to 
khans,  placed  under  the  dependence  of  China.  These  tribes,  for 
the  greater  part  nomadics,  change  their  encampments  15  or  20 
times  a  year.  They  are  Booddhists,  and  have  also  sovereign  pon- 
tiffs, whom  they  believe  immortal,  like  the  Delai-Lama  of  Thibet. 
Catholic  missionaries,  notwithstanding  many  obstacles,  obtain  ac- 
cess to  a  certain  number  of  scattered  and  often  persecuted  Chris- 
tians.    (See  page  100,  a  Mongol  priest.) 

3.  The  Plateau  of  Soongaria.  —  Soongaria  (or  country 
of  the  left  hand,  because  it  is  on  the  left,  or  west,  of  China)  is  a 
plateau  even  less  elevated  than  the  preceding ;  and  it  was  through 
its  broad  valleys,  which  open  like  so  many  doors  towards  the  west, 
that  the  nomadic  people  of  Eastern  Upper  Asia  were  dispersed 
over  Europe  like  the  waves  of  a  vast  inundation,  at  the  time  of  the 
great  invasion  of  the  barbarians,  which  took  place  five  centuries 
after  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ.  Its  aspect  is  that  of  a  country 
of  steppes  and  lakes,  perfectly  arid  in  the  eastern  part.  The  cli- 
mate is  cold. 

The  vegetation  is  that  of  the  northern  countries,  producing  a 
few  fruit  trees,  wheat,  barley,  millet,  and  hemp. 

The  animals  are  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  countries  ;  the 
inhabitants  raise  especially  great  numbers  of  horses,  and  hunt 
in  winter  almost  all  the  fur-bearuig  animals  of  the  more  northern 
regions. 

The  population  of  the  Mongolian  race  is  composed  principally 
of  Kalmucks  and  Kirghiz,  who  are  constantly  transporting  their 
flocks  and  tents  from  one  valley  to  another.  They  are  remarka- 
ble, especially  the  Kirghiz,  for  an  extraordinary  development  of 
the  senses  of  sight  and  hearing.  At  a  distance  of  more  than  a 
9^ 


102  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATUREv 

quarter  of  a  league,  the  Kirghiz  can  discover  a  man  concealed  in 
ambuscade.  They  are  idolaters,  and  offer  sacrifices  both  to  the 
genius  of  good  and  to  that  of  evil. 

4.  The  Plateau  of  Mantchooria.  —  Mantchooria,  a  ]^lar 
teau  which  belongs  wholly  to  Eastern  Upper  Asia,  being  the  con- 
tinuation of  Mongolia  by  the  broad  valley  of  the  River  Amoor,  is 
a  country  entirely  surrounded  by  mountains,  and  almost  unknown. 
The  climate  is  cold  and  severe ;  the  vegetation  tolerably  produc- 
tive in  trees  of  all  kinds,  and  in  the  cereals  of  cold  countries. 
Among  the  plants  cultivated  there,  and  worthy  of  our  notice,  is 
the  ginseng,  whose  yellow  root,  veined  with  black,  and  similar  to 
that  of  the  rhubarb,  is  considered  by  the  Chinese  to  be  endowed 
with  medicinal  virtues  so  powerful  that  it  sells  for  its  weight  in  gold. 
It  is  a  kind  of  universal  remedy  for  diseases  of  the  lungs  or  stom- 
ach, for  poison,  weakness  of  sight,  &c.  "  Administer,"  they  say, 
"  a  few  grains  of  it  to  a  dying  old  man,  and  he  will  revive ;  con- 
tinue the  practice  daily,  and  his  vigor  will  be  renewed ;  and  thus 
he  may  be  sustained  for  many  months."  It  is  unnecessary  to  state 
that  the  Europeans  have  not  experienced  the  same  good  effects 
from  the  nee  of  this  plant  as  the  Chinese. 

As  respects  animals,  Mantchooria  possesses  at  the  same  time 
the  fur-clad  animals  of  the  cold  and  the  ounce  of  the  warm  coun- 
tries. Its  vast  forests  are  stocked  with  all  kinds  of  game,  stags, 
deer,  and  wild  boars. 

The  population  is  of  the  Mongolian  race.  The  Mantchoos  are 
more  valiant  than  their  neighbors,  the  Tartars,  for  they  conquered 
China  more  than  200  years  ago,  of  wliich  country  their  chief  is 
always  emperor.  They  naturally  form  his  guard,  and  the  best 
part  of  the  Chinese  troops. 

As  there  is  a  high  plateau  in  Eastern  Upper  Asia,  there  is  like- 
wise a  corresponding  high  plateau  in  Western  Upper  Asia,  which 
extends  from  the  northern  plains  of  India  even  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  bearing  different  names. 

5.  Plateau  of  Iran.  —  The  Plateau  of  Iran,  or  Persia,  is 
formed  by  two  chains  of  mountains  which  detach  from  Mount 
Taurus,  one  of  which,  passing  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  continues 
in  a  straight  line  even  to  the  Bolor  Mountains,  and  the  other, 
stretching  towards  the  south-east,  follows  the  borders  of  the  Per- 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  103 

sian  Gulf  and  of  the  Gulf  of  Oman,  and  afterwards  unites  with 
the  former  near  the  Bolor  Mountains. 

The  aspect  of  Iran  is  generally  sandy  and  arid.  It  consists  of 
steppes  devoid  of  trees  and  verdure,  destitute  of  water,  and  where 
cultivation  is  only  possible  on  the  condition  of  the  earth's  being 
moistened  by  artificial  water  courses.  The  centre  of  Iran  is  in- 
deed a  Gobi  in  miniature :  it  is  a  large  desert,  whose  surface  is 
partly  covered  with  a  deposit  of  salt.  The  mountains,  especially 
those  of  the  south  along  the  Persian  Gulf,  contain,  on  the  con- 
trary, delicious  valleys,  which  are  paradises  in  freshness,  verdure, 
and  fertility. 

The  climate  is  hot,  and  often  burning,  at  the. south  and  on  the 
coasts ;  mild  and  salubrious  in  the  mountains ;  cold  and  exposed 
to  severe  winds  at  the  north. 

The  vegetation  is  very  luxuriant  in  the  fertile  countries.  The 
gardens,  which  are  the  delight  of  the  Persians,  are  full  of  mag- 
nificent flowers  ;  in  the  mountains  are  found  complete  forests  of 
rose  trees,  with  their  fragrant  blossoms,  from  which  is  distilled  a 
perfumed  essence  highly  esteemed  throughout  the  East.  This  is 
the  primitive  country  of  the  peach,  and  many  other  of  our  most 
excellent  fruits.  Vines  of  considerable  size  may  be  seen  there, 
which  stretch  their  shoots  from  one  tree  to  another,  and  present 
clusters  of  grapes  of  enormous  w^eight.  Wheat,  cotton,  sugar 
cane,  and  sesame,  which  last  takes  the  place  of  the  olive,  which  is 
wholly  wanting,  enrich  some  of  the  provinces  of  Persia.  The 
best  saffron  in  the  world  is  also  cultivated  there.  The  saffron  is 
a  small  plant  without  a  stalk,  whose  flowers  appear  before  the 
leaves,  in  the  month  of  October,  and  are  immediately  gathered ; 
it  is  their  inner  fibres,  which,  after  being  dissolved  in  water,  con- 
stitute the  saffron.  It  is  of  a  yellow  and  not  very  durable  tint, 
and  is  used  in  coloring  butter,  vermicelli,  creams,  and  cakes ; 
finally,  it  is  employed  in  medicine  and  for  dyeing. 

Another  plant  wholly  peculiar  to  these  countries  is  the  assa- 
fcetida,  from  which,  by  incisions  made  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
root,  a  lacteous  juice  is  extracted,  which  hardens  in  the  air,  and 
forms  a  resin  very  useful  in  medicine.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that, 
whereas  the  odor  of  this  resin  appears  fetid  and  disagreeable  to 
us,  the  Orientals  are  passionately  fond  of  it ;  they  mix  it  with 
almost  all  their  food,  and  call  it  the  delight  of  the  gods. 


i. 


104 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


Next  in  order  should  be  named  the  salep  of  Persia,  the  root 
of  a  plant  similar  to  our  field  orchis.  This  root  is  round  or  oval 
in  form  ;  the  Orientals,  who  make  much  use  of  it,  steep  it  in  boil- 
ing water  in  order  to  remove  the  bark,  and  afterwards  dry  it  in  the 
sun.  Reduced  to  ashes,  the  salep  is  of  a  yellowish  color,  and 
may  be  easily  dissolved  in  water  and  milk  for  forming  jellies.  It 
is  nourishing  and  strengthening,  and  is  recommended  to  persons 
who  have  weak  lungs. 

We  must  not  omit  to  mention  that  Persia  .furnishes  the  best 
licorice.  This  is  a  plant  of  the  warm  countries,  which  has 
long  roots,  yellow  within,  and  on  the  outside  of  a  reddish  hue ; 
owing  to  its  sweet  savor  and  mollifying  properties  it  is  very  much 
used  in  the  preparation  of  diet  drinks  and  pectoral  pastes. 

The  animals  of  Iran  are  generally  those  of  the  warm  coun- 
tries. The  Persian  horses  almost  equal  the  Arab  steeds  in  beau- 
ty ;  camels  are  numerous,  and  it  is  those  of  this  country  whose 
hair  is  most  in  demand  for  the  manufacture  of  valuable  cloth.  But 
the  dromedary  especially  is  the  indispensable  beast  of  burden  for 
establishins  communications  across  the  deserts  of  these  countries. 


fiiiiilii 


P.ersiam. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  ASIA.  105 

Fine  asses  are  also  found  there  ;  sheep  with  immense  tails  and 
very  fine  fleeces ;  and  goats  with  silky  wool.  Among  the  wild 
animals  may  be  mentioned  lions,  leopards,  tigers,  hyenas,  and 
jackals  ;  locusts  are  also  a  scourge  to  Persia. 

The  minerals  are  rare  and  scarcely  known.  Salt  is  found 
there  in  great  abundance,  and  in  some  caverns  of  the  mountains 
at  the  north  are  scanty  deposits  of  a  very  rare  bitumen,  which  is 
employed  for  the  healing  of  wounds,  and  which  is  gathered  once 
a  year  exclusively  for  the  king. 

The  population  are  all  of  the  white  race,  generally  handsome 
and  strong,  of  the  Mahometan  religion,  but  belonging  to  a  sect 
hostile  to  that  of  the  Arabs  and  Turks.  The  Persians  are  very 
polite  in  their  manners,  but  crafty,  deceitful,  and  susceptible  to 
bribery.  The  women  never  appear  in  public  without  being  en- 
veloped in  one  or  more  veils,  which  present  only  two  apertures, 
for  the  eyes. 

6.  Plateau  of  Armenia.  —  North-west  of  the  plateau  of 
Iran,  is  situated  that  of  Armenia,  the  country  where  Noah's  ark 
rested,  and  which  was  the  second  cradle  of  the  human  race.  It 
is  a  mountainous  and  very  elevated  plateau,  the  climate  of  which 
is  salubrious,  but  cold ;  snow  may  be  seen  there  during  more  than 
six  months ;  often  also  it  falls  in  June.  The  vegetables  differ  ac- 
cording to  the  elevation :  the  vine  and  fruits  of  the  south  only  flour- 
ish in  the  well-sheltered  valleys.  Naturalists  think,  however, 
that  a  very  excellent  fruit,  the  apricot,  was  originally  from  Ar- 
menia. The  cattle  constitute  the  principal  wealth  of  the  popula- 
tion, to  which  should  be  added  the  product  of  the  mines.  Those 
of  copper  have  always  been  renowned,  but  the  want  of  fuel 
and  good  roads  render  their  exploration  difficult  and  expensive. 
Naphtha  and  mineral  salt  are  also  found  there. 

The  population  is  wholly  of  the  white  race.  The  Armenians 
are  usually  large  and  handsome,  with  black  eyes  and  hair,  and 
somewhat  swarthy  complexions  ;  their  disposition  is  amiable  and 
mild :  they  are  hospitable,  very  much  attached  to  their  families, 
and  exceedingly  skilful  in  commerce.  They  are  subject  to  the 
Persians,  Turks,  and  Russians,  among  whom  their  country  is 
divided ;  but  many  of  them  have  removed  to  a  distance,  estab- 
lishing themselves  in  almost  all  the  large  cities  of  the  East,  for 


k 


106  THE  GEOGEAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

the  convenience  of  their  commerce.  They  are  likewise  very- 
much  oppressed  by  the  nomadic  bands  of  Kurds,  who  range  with 
their  cattle  through  all  these  countries,  and  practise  every  species 
of  depredation  and  excess.  The  Armenians  are  Christians,  but 
of  a  peculiar  sect,  who  very  nearly  approach  to  the  Greek  church. 
There  are  also  Nestorians  in  this  country,  a  very  ancient  class  (tf 
Protestants,  in  the  midst  of  whom  Protestant  and  Catholic  mis- 
sions are  now  very  active. 

7.  Plateau  of  Anatolia The  high  country  continues 

even  to  the  west  of  Armenia.  Two  chains  of  mountains,  which, 
becoming  detached  from  Taurus,  traverse  the  peninsula  of  Ana- 
tolia, the  one  along  the  Black  Sea  and  the  other  along  the  Medi- 
terranean, form  the  plateau  of  Anatolia,  remarkable  for  an  almost 
total  absence  of  trees,  which  gives  it  a  peculiarly  gloomy  aspect 
We  have  previously  spoken  of  the  productions  of  this  country 
in  connection  with  the  peninsula  of  Anatolia,  and  will  not  again 
enumerate  them.  We  should,  however,  mention  that  it  is  partic- 
ularly on  this  plateau  that  the  opium  poppy  is  cultivated,  and 
that  the  angora  goats  are  raised.  There  also  is  cultivated  an  im- 
portant tinctorial  plant,  whose  fruits  are  very  much  sought  in 
Europe,  and  more  especially  in  England,  namely,  the  djehri,  more 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  avignon  berries  ;  this  is  a  deli- 
cate shrub,  which  is  propagated  by  suckers,  and  whose  fruit,  of 
the  size  of  pepper  grains,  yields  a  good  yellow  color :  dyers  also 
obtain  from  these  countries  many  nut-galls,  great  excrescences 
resembling  a  musket  ball,  which  are  formed  on  a  species  of  oak 
by  the  puncture  of  an  insect,  which  there  deposits  its  eggs. 
Galls  enter  into  the  composition  of  our  ink  and  many  dyes. 

8.  Plateau  of  Syria.  —  To  Mount  Taurus  and  the  pla- 
teau of  Anatolia  is  attached  another  very  celebrated  high  country, 
namely,  Syria,  so  often  mentioned  in  Scripture.  This  country  is 
crossed  from  one  extremity  to  the  other  by  the  Mountains  of 
Lebanon,  between  whose  two  chains,  the  Lebanon  and  Anti- 
Lebanon,  exists  a  deep  valley. 

We  have  already  remarked  that  the  climate  of  the  valleys  is 
temperate  and  salubrious,  and  the  vegetation  very  fine.  On  the 
coasts  it  is  excessively  hot,  and  the  climate  is  quite  unhealthy. 
The  whole  country  is  very  subject  to  droughts,  and  also  to  earth- 


THE    CONTINENT    OP  ASIA.  107 

quakes,  which  have  often  overthrown  almost  entire  cities.  Locusts 
are,  moreover,  a  third  and  no  less  formidable  scourge. 

The  productions  of  Syria  are  wheat,  maize,  or  Indian  corn, 
and  the  dhoura,  a  species  of  millet,  a  cane  from  six  to  seven 
feet  high,  which  bears  a  grain  similar  to  lentils,  the  farina  of 
which  composes  one  of  the  most  common  dishes  among  the  in- 
habitants of  all  these  countries ;  sesame,  of  whose  excellent  oil  we 
have  already  spoken ;  dates  in  great  quantities  and  of  a  superior 
quality ;  cotton,  excellent  tobacco,  and  the  mulberry  tree,  which 
furnishes  Syria  with  its  principal  product  of  silk. 

Syria  has  also  another  natural  source  of  wealth  in  its  many  me- 
dicinal plants,  which  form  an  important  branch  of  commerce,  and 
of  which  we  have  not  yet  made  mention ;  as  the  galhanum  plant, 
from  which  is  extracted,  by  incisions  made  in  the  roots,  a  yellow- 
ish, juicy  gum,  whch  is  much  employed  in  medicine  in  the  com- 
position of  certain  ointments  ;  the  scammony,  which  is  also  a  resin 
gum,  extracted  by  incision  from  the  root  of  a  species  of  bindweed ; 
the  storax,  a  resin  gum  produced  by  a  large  shrub,  and  which  is 
used  both  as  a  perfume  and  in  medicine;  and  the  adraganth 
gum,  which  flows  naturally  from  certain  small  shrubs  in  these 
countries.  It  is  employed  in  medicine,  and  is  useful  in  the 
arts  in  giving  more  consistency  to  ribbons  and  laces,  and  in  the 
application  of  certain  delicate  colors. 

The  animals  present  nothing  remarkable.  They  consist  of 
horses,  camels,  horned  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  many  jackals. 

The  population,  all  of  the  white  race,  and  very  inconsiderable  in 
number,  is  composed  of  Turks,  Arabs,  Greeks,  Jews,  and  Arme- 
nians ;  in  the  Lebanon  exist  two  rival  races,  always  at  war ;  the 
Druses,  idolaters  or  Mussulmans,  and  the  Maronites,  Catholic 
Christians  placed  under  the  protection  of  France.  Syria  is  a 
country  on  the  decHne,  where  ignorance,  superstition,  and  tyranny 
reign. 

9.  Plateau  of  Judea.  —  Detached  from  the  Anti-Lebanon 
and  separated  by  the  deep  valley  of  the  Jordan,  are  two  chains 
of  mountains,  which,  extending  southerly  towards  the  Eed  Sea, 
form  the  high  country  so  celebrated  under  the  names  of  Pales- 
tine, Judea,  or  the  Holy  Land. 

The  aspect  of  this  country  is  extremely  severe,  mountainous, 


108         THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

and  destitute  of  trees  except  in  the  valleys  and  gardens,  where 
the  vegetation  is  very  fine. 

The  climate  is  temperate  upon  the  heights,  but  generally  hot 
elsewhere.  In  the  deep  valleys,  where  the  days  are  very  hot, 
the  nights  are  cool,  and  refreshed  by  abundant  dew,  rendering  it 
dangerous  to  venture  out  after  sunset  without  a  thick  wrapper. 
There  are  only  two  seasons,  summer  and  winter,  which  last  is 
preceded  by  the  latter  and  followed  by  the  former  rains,  so  often 
alluded  to  in  the  Bible. 

The  vegetables  are  the  same  as  those  of  Syria.  In  these  days, 
as  in  ancient  times,  the  olive  ranks  first  among  all  the  trees  of 
Palestine,  which  is  probably  its  primitive  country.  Nowhere  is 
it  to  be  found  so  large  or  so  aged ;  thus  the  ancient  olive  trees 
which  are  still  to  be  seen  in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane,  near 
Jerusalem,  are  said  to  be  as  many  as  25  feet  in  circumference, 
and  appear  so  old  that  it  is  asserted,  and  not  without  some  foun- 
dation, that  they  are  the  same  which  were  the  witnesses  of  the 
mysterious  scene  of  our  Saviour's  agony.  The  Jig  tree  grows  as 
profusely  as  of  old ;  the  vine  is  rare,  and  there  are  but  few  palm 
trees  ;  cypresses  in  abundance  adorn  the  cemeteries  and  gardens. 

The  grains  there  cultivated  are  espiecially  barley,  wheat,  and 
millet ;  rice  flourishes  only  in  a  few  moist  places.  In  Palestine, 
also,  the  famous  sycamore  may  be  frequently  met  with,  of  the 
same  species  as  that  which  Zaccheus  climbed  in  order  to  see  Je- 
sus as  he  passed.  This  is  a  tree  very  precious  in  the  East,  both 
on  account  of  its  fruits,  which  possess  nearly  the  same  qualities 
as  common  figs,  and  for  its  vast  shade,  which  is  capable  of  shel- 
tering a  caravan  of  thirty  travellers  with  their  horses  ;  the  Ori- 
entals very  often  climb  them,  and  ensconce  themselves  among  the 
branches  to  smoke  their  pipes  or  indulge  in  conversation.  As  for 
its  fruits,  as  soon  as  gathered  they  are  replaced  by  others,  and 
thus  a  tree  yields  as  many  as  seven  crops  a  year. 

Another  tree  famed  in  the  East  is  that  from  which  the  Balm 
of  Judea  or  Gilead  is  extracted,  and  which  thrives  principally  in 
the  portion  of  the  plateau  situated  east  of  the  Jordan.  This 
balm,  which  does  not  differ  from  that  of  Mecca,  of  which  we  have 
already  spoken  in  connection  with  Arabia,  is  thought  by  the  Ma- 
hometans to  be  possessed  of  marvellous  properties.     The  tree, 


THE   CONTINENT   OP    ASIA.  109 

according  to  their  doctrine,  sprang  from  the  blood  of  meii  slain  in 
a  battle  by  Mahomet,  and  from  it,  as  they  affirm,  immediately 
gushed  a  precious  balm,  of  which  the  great  prophet  made  use  to 
resuscitate  the  dead.  The  balm,  issuing  from  incisions  made  in 
the  trunk  or  branches,  is  reserved  for  the  nobles  of  Constantinople. 
On  boiling  the  branches  in  water,  an  oily  substance  is  seen  to 
swim  on  the  surface ;  this  is  the  balm  of  second  quality,  destined 
for  the  Turkish  ladies,  who  make  use  of  it  in  their  toilet ;  finally, 
a  new  decoction  produces  the  balsam  of  Mecca,  which  is  ex- 
ported to  Europe,  but  which  is  often  counterfeited. 

The  animals  are  those  of  Syria ;  few  large  cattle,  horses,  and 
camels,  but  many  sheep,  goats,  asses,  and  mules,  a  few  panthers, 
wolves,  and  jackals. 

The  population^  wholly  of  the  white  race,  is  the  same  as  that 
of  Syria,  consisting  of  Arabs  and  Turks,  who  are  Mahometans, 
Jews,  Greeks,  and  Armenians,  and  some  Europeans,  both  Cath- 
olics and  Protestants.  The  latter  now  have  a  church  on  Mount 
Zion  at  Jerusalem.  All  the  portion  east  of  Jordan,  formerly  cov- 
ered with  opulent  cities,  whose  magnificent  ruins  are  yet  visible, 
is  nearly  deserted.  The  pillage  and  continual  exactions  of  the 
Bedouin  Arabs  no  longer  sufier  the  peasants  to  cultivate  the 
earth ;  the  small  cities,  even,  are  abandoned  by  degrees,  and  few 
travellers  dare  trust  themselves  in  this  gloomy  region. 


Bedouin  Arabs. 

10 


110  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

10.  Plateau  of  Nedjed.  ^—  Adjoining  the  high  country  of 
which  we  have  just  treated  is  a  plateau  too  little  known  to  arrest 
our  attention,  but  which  occupies  all  the  central  part  of  Arabia; 
this  is  the  plateau  q/*  JVec?/'ecf,  wholly  covered  with  deserts  studded 
with  fresh  oases. 

11.  Plateau  of  the  Dec  can.  —  To  complete  our  review 
of  all  the  high  countries  of  Asia,  there  only  remains  to  be 
mentioned  the  plateau  of  the  Deccan,  entirely  isolated  in  the 
south  of  the  peninsula  of  India,  and  which  is  formed  by  three 
chains  of  mountains,  the  Vindhyan  Mountains  at  the  north,  the 
Ghauts  of  Malabar  at  the  west,  and  the  Ghauts  of  Goromandel 
at  the  east. 

This  plateau  possesses  all  the  productions  characteristic  of  In- 
dia. It  is  especially  rich  in  its  precious  stones,  among  others  in 
its  diamonds,  which  have  furnished  the  specimens  most  admired 
both  in  Europe  and  in  the  East.  They  are  found  in  caves  in  the 
midst  of  a  reddish  earth,  or  in  the  sand  of  certain  rivers.  These 
diamonds  are  more  pure,  more  sparkling,  and  harder  than  those 
of  any  other  countries. 

Among  the  vegetables  of  the  Deccan  should  be  specified  a 
remarkable  building  wood,  the  teak  wood,  almost  incorruptible, 
and  especially  sought  for  the  building  of  ships ;  and  the  areca 
palm,  whose  fruit,  of  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  contains  a  kernel, 
which,  sprinkled  with  lime  and  enveloped  in  a  leaf  of  the  plant 
called  betel,  is  chewed  by  the  Hindoos  from  morning  till  night ; 
nor  do  they  fail  to  offer  it  to  every  guest :  the  chewing  of  the 
betel  is  a  passion  common  to  both  women  and  men,  and  they  make 
as  great  a  consumption  of  this  plant  as  we  do  of  tobacco.  The 
bud  which  terminates  the  plant,  and  which  is  formed  of  the  unde- 
veloped and  very  tender  leaves,  is  known  by  the  name  of  the 
cabbage  palm ;  it  is  eaten  raw  or  cooked,  and  is  very  agreeable 
to  the  taste. 

Among  the  vegetables  serving  for  perfumes  may  be  mentioned 
the  white  sandal  and  the  aloes,  trees  whose  fragrant  wood  is 
burned  as  perfume  in  the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  Hindoos 
and  Mahometans.  The  benjamin,  a  tree  which  resembles  the  fir, 
produces  also  a  gum,  esteemed  one  of  the  choicest  incenses  among 
the  Catholic  population  of  Europe,  as  well  as  among  the  Asiatic 
nations  of  which  we  have  just  spoken. 


THE  CONTINENT   OF  ASIA. 


Ill 


We  must  include  among  the  most  rich  and  precious  pro- 
ductions of  the  Deccan  its  vegetables  serving  for  spices,  or 
for  the  seasoning  of  dishes.  The  black  pepper,  (of  which  the 
white  pepper  is  made  by  removing  its  bark,)  ranks  first,  and  is 
exported  throughout  the  world.     The  pepper  is  a  small  fruit 


Pepper  Plant. 


which  grows  in  clusters,  like  those  of  the  currant,  on  a  climbing 
plant  called  the  pepper  plant.  Each  of  these  clusters  contains 
from  20  to  30  grains  of  pepper.  The  pepper  is  planted.  It  pro- 
duces no  fruit  until  at  the  age  of  three  years,  and  ceases  to  bear 
at  the  end  of  twelve.  Certain  shrubs  yield  as  many  as  10  or 
15  pounds  in  the  first  years.  Every  one  is  familiar  with  the  hot 
and  pungent  character  of  this  grain,  of  which  we  make  so  great 
a  consumption.  The  hetel,  whose  leaves,  prepared  with  the 
areca  nut,  are,  as  we  have  said,  chewed  with  delight  by  the  Hin- 
doos, is  a  species  of  pepper  plant.  The  cashoo,  which,  both  in 
Europe  and  America,  is  chewed  by  many,  (especially  smokers,) 
when  prepared  by  the  apothecaries  in  little  silvered  pastils,  is 
the  thickened  juice  of  a  species   of  acacia.      Another  Indian 


112  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

spice  is  the  ginger,  a  root  of  about  the  size  of  the  thumb,  of  a 
sharp  and  very  hot  nature,  which  is  employed  in  pharmacy 
and  in  the  seasoning  of  food.  Preserved  in  sugar,  the  ginger 
furnishes  a  dehcious  sweetmeat,  and  in  summer  a  lively  and 
refreshing  beverage  in  made  of  it,  called  ginger  heer. 

Concerning  the  rice,  cotton,  and  other  products  of  the  Deccan, 
we  have  spoken  in  connection  with  India. 

The  animals  and  population  are  also  the  same,  and  we  will  not 
recapitulate  them. 

Sect.  5.  Plains  of  Asia.  —  Having  considered  the  plateaus 
or  high  countries,  we  shall  next  direct  our  attention  to  the  low 
plains,  which  are  five  in  number,  the  first  four  of  which  are  situ- 
ated around  the  high  plateau  of  Eastern  Asia :  Hindostan,  on 
the  south  ;  China,  on  the  east ;  Siberia,  on  the  north ;  and  Toor- 
kistan,  on  the  west.  The  fifth,  which  is  the  Desert  of  Syria, 
is  located  between  the  high  country  of  Syria  and  the  plateau 
of  Iran. 

1.  HiNDOSTAN  AND  BENGAL.  —  Hindostan' ,  whose  eastern 
portion  bears  the  name  of  Bengal,  is  a  vast  low  plain,  occupying 
all  the  north  of  India,  between  the  Himalaya  and  the  Vindhyan 
Mountains.  With  the  exception  of  the  western  part,  where  there 
are  some  deserts,  it  resembles  a  garden  of  prodigious  fertility. 
Picture  to  yourselves  immense  fields  of  roses,  from  which  the 
essence  is  extracted  by  distillation,  side  by  side  with  others  cov- 
ered with  poppies,  from  which,  as  we  have  seen,  the  opium  is 
obtained ;  and  a  little  beyond,  vast  thickets  of  cotton  trees,  from 
the  product  of  which  the  Hindoos  have  always  been  skilled  in 
manufacturing  those  delicate  muslins,  which  for  a  long  time 
seemed  inimitable  to  the  Europeans.  Elsewhere,  as  far  as  the 
eye  can  reach,  extend  fields  of  rice,  plantations  of  sugar  cane,  or, 
immense  fields  of  indigo  —  a  small  plant,  which  is  cut  several 
times  a  year  with  sickles,  and  which  yields  a  beautiful  blue 
color,  the  indigo,  increased  quantities  of  which  are  annually 
demanded  by  commerce.  The  plant,  being  cut,  is  placed  in 
a  vat,  three  quarters  full  of  water,  where  it  ferments  and  decom- 
poses, turning  the  water  blue ;  it  is  then  passed  into  other  vats, 
and  a  little  lime  being  added,  the  indigo  settles  at  the  bottom, 
when  it  is  collected  and  ready  for  commerce. 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  113 

But,  although  the  aspect  of  the  plains  of  Bengal  is  magnifi- 
cent, the  climate  is  very  trying  to  Europeans.  The  heat  is 
oppressive  during  nearly  the  whole  day.  All  nature  is  some- 
times convulsed  by  fearful  hurricanes,  and  various  terrible  dis- 
eases ;  the  cholera  and  the  elephantiasis  (a  shocking  leprosy, 
which  produces  a  singular  swelling  of  the  limbs)  cause  great 
ravages  among  the  inhabitants. 

In  respect  to  mineral  wealth,  Bengal  is  no  less  richly  endowed 
than  the  rest  of  India.  It  boasts,  besides  its  ancient  precious 
metals  and  diamonds,  a  mineral  especially  useful  in  our  times  — 
Xh^pit  coal;  and  another,  which  unfortunately  derives  its  principal 
importance  from  the  evil  use  to  which  it  is  converted,  namely, 
saltpetre,  a  species  of  salt,  which,  with  charcoal  and  sulphur,  con- 
stitute, the  ingredients  of  gunpowder.  Most  of  the  English  and 
American  ships  which  trade  with  India  take  thence  saltpetre  by 
way  of  ballast ;  that  is,  as  heavy  matter  required  in  the  hold  of 
vessels  to  steady  them,  and  prevent  them  from  becoming  the 
sport  of  the  winds. 

The  vegetables  of  Bengal  have  mostly  been  enumerated  in 
connection  with  India,  and  we  have  only  to  mention,  in  addition, 
a  new  textile  substance,  which  attracted  much  attention,  at  the 
London  Exhibition,  in  1852.  This  is  ih^jute,  a  species  of  hemp, 
which  flourishes  in  the  plains  of  Bengal,  and  which  possesses,  in 
singular  conjunction,  the  properties  both  of  flax  and  of  cotton ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  capacity  of  being  combed  in  parallel  threads, 
and  that  of  being  carded.  Thus  the  jute  can  be  reduced  to  fila- 
ments like  silk,  and  to  wool  like  cotton.  It  combines  equally  well 
with  silk,  wool,  thread,  and  cotton ;  and  the  English  hope  to  sub- 
stitute this  new  substance  for  the  cottons  of  the  first  quality, 
which  they  can  only  obtain  from  North  America. 

The  animals  and  population  of  Bengal  have  already  been 
described,  in  Connection  with  India. 

2.  The  Plain  of  China.  —  China  is  generally  a  country  of 
plains,  especially  in  the  portion  which  is  included  between  its  two 
great  rivers ;  but  it  is  a  country  of  a  very  diversified  aspect,  inter- 
sected with  mountains,  rivers,  and  numerous  canals.  The  whole 
is  cultivated  even  to  the  summits  of  the  mountains,  on  the  sides 
of  which  the  earth  is  retained  by  means  of  walls,  and  watered 
10* 


i. 


Hi  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NAT¥RE. 

by  artificial  engines.  Gardens  are  even  cultivated,  formed  of  a 
small  quantity  of  earth  placed  on  rafts,  which  float  over  the 
rivers. 

The  climate  is  warm  and  temperate,  which  favors  the  culti- 
vation of  its  extremely  varied  products. 

The  vegetables  are,  first,  rice,  which  is  the  essential  nour- 
ishment of  the  inhabitants ;  all  the  cereals  and  fruits  of  Eu- 
rope and  Asia;  the  bamboo,  which  renders  immense  services, 
and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  articles,  and  house- 
hold utensils,  and  even  for  houses ;  the  cotton  tree,  of  which 
the  Chinese  possess,  among  others,  a  yellow  species,  the  nan- 
keen, so  called  after  one  of  their  principal  cities ;  and  the  white 
mulberry,  whose  leaves  serve  for  the  nourishment  of  the  silk  worm, 
that  precious  insect,  of  which  the  Chinese  first  learned  to  make 
use,  in  fabricating  rich  stuffs,  from  the  delicate  threads  of  which 
it  forms  its  cocoon  ;  for  a  long  time  they  preserved  the  secret  of 
these  manufactures,  which  were  then  so  expensive  that  a  Roman 
emperor,  Aurelian,  on  this  account  refused  to  purchase  a  silk 
robe  for  the  empress,  his  wife.  It  was  only  about  five  hundred 
years  after  the  birth  of  Christ,  under  the  reign  of  another  Roman 
emperor,  named  Justinian,  that  Greek  missionaries,  by  bringing 
over  from  the  Indies,  in  canes  hollowed  expressly  for  the  pur- 
pose, a  few  eggs  of  the  silk  worm,  made  the  Europeans  acquainted 
with  the  secret  of  obtaining  and  employing  the  silk. 

Another  no  less  celebrated  production,  and  which  is  wholly 
peculiar  to  China,  is  the  tea,  which  has  become  in  all  coun- 
tries an  important  article  of  commerce.  The  tea  is  a  shrub, 
which  rises  to  a  height  of  from  4  to  6  feet ;  its  leaves  only  are 
used,  which  are  gathered  twice  a  year,  in  the  spring  and  in  the 
autumn,  when  they  begin  to  unfold.  They  are  dried  a  little  in 
tjie  sun,  then  exposed  on  plates  of  hot  iron,  and  afterwards  rolled 
on  mats  with  the  palm  of  the  hand.  These  operations  are  re- 
peated many  times,  and  when  the  tea,  well  dried,  has  thus  been 
robbed  of  a  sliarp  principle  which  it  contains,  it  is  closely  packed 
in  chests  lined  with  sheets  of  lead,  and  then  despatched  to  Eu- 
rope or  America.  Nearly  fifty  varieties  of  tea  are  estimated  in 
commerce,  but  they  are   always   divided  into  two  classes :   the 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  ASIA. 


115 


hlach  tea,  which  is  the  less  stimulating,  and  the  green  tea.  The 
name  of  caravan  tea  is  also  given  to  the  fine  qualities  which  are 
exported  to  us  from  the  interior  of  the  continent,  and  from  Rus- 
sia. The  use  of  tea  was  introduced  into  Europe  about  two  hun- 
dred years  ago ;  and  the  first  French  physician,  who  recommended 
it,  called  it  the  divine  herh. 


Tea  riant. 

Another  vegetable,  as  curious  as  it  is  useful,  is  the  tallow  tree, 
which  somewhat  resembles  our  cherry  trees,  and  whose  fruit 
is  in  the  form  of  capsules,  with  three  cells,  each  containing  a 
seed  covered  with  a  very  hard  and  white  kind  of  tallow.  The 
shells  and  seeds  are  ground   together,  boiled  in  a  kettle,  then 


k 


116  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

skimmed,  and  the  fat,  which  floats  on  the  surface,  and  when  cold 
becomes  hard,  may  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  candles. 

The  varnish  tree^  or  hadamier,  is  a  tree  from  which  a  gum  is 
extracted  by  incision.  The  Chinese  collect  the  gum  while  it  is 
yet  liquid,  and  use  it  in  the  composition  of  many  varnishes,  with 
which  they  polish  even  the  walls  of  their  houses ;  the  articles 
varnished  with  it,  and  which  are  imported  into  this  country,  are 
known  by  the  name  of  lacker  goods. 

In  connection  with  the  tallow  tree,  our  attention  is  naturally 
directed  to  the  trees  of  waXy  or  rather  of  the  wax  insects.  The 
eggs,  which  have  been  carefully  collected,  are  suspended  on  the 
branches  of  the  tree  in  the  spring.  The  insects,  immediately 
after  hatching,  climb  to  the  branches,  nourish  themselves  with 
their  gum,  and  emit  a  kind  of  saliva.  This  liquid  adheres  to  the 
branches,  and  is  transformed  into  a  white  fleshy  substance,  which 
is  removed  by  scraping,  and  which  constitutes  the  wax  of  the 
tree.  After  being  dissolved  and  purified,  it  is  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  boxes.  The  insects,  which  were  first  white,  and 
of  about  the  size  of  a  grain  of  rice,  become  red  or  violet  colored, 
increase  very  much,  and  remain  hanging  from  the  branches  in 
clusters,  as  if  they  were  the  fruits  of  the  tree ;  it  is  after  this 
that  the  females  lay  their  eggs. 

Among  the  other  less  curious  but  no  less  useful  plants  should 
be  mentioned  a  species  of  mulberry,  —  the  paper  mulberry ,  — 
whose  bark,  prepared  like  hemp,  yield  a  flax,  of  which  cordage 
and  also  paper  are  made ;  and  the  white  nettle^  cultivated 
throughout  China,  whose  bark  furnishes,  like  the  hemp,  fibres,  of 
which  the  Chinese  manufacture  very  delicate  cloth,  which  is  very 
durable,  and  which  has  this  peculiarity,  that  even  when  old  it 
scatters  no  white  down  on  the  garments,  like  the  linen,  or  hemp 
cloth. 

Another  product  sought  by  commerce,  in  China,  is  the  anise 
seed,  or  badiam,  a  fruit  produced  by  a  tree  in  this  country,  and 
found  in  a  shell,  in  the  form  of  a  star.  The  anise  seed  is  very 
much  used  in  drugs,  and  is  employed  in  the  preparation  of  the 
table  liquor  which  is  sold  under  the  name  of  Bordeaux  aniseed. 

Finally,  it  may  be  added,  for  the  benefit  of  the  florist,  that 
China  is  the  native  soil  of  the  camellias,  hydrangeas,  and  China 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  117 

asters,  those  beautiful  flowers  wliich  are  now  naturalized  in  our 
countries. 

The  animal  Icingdom  presents  nothing  remarkable.  China 
possesses  the  horse,  ox,  and  camel;  and  in  the  southern  part 
tigers,  leopards,  monkeys,  &c. 

China  abounds  in  divers  minerals  —  gold,  silver,  mercury,  iron, 
salt,  &c.  But  the  mineral  substance  for  which  it  is  most  noted 
is  the  kaolin,  or  porcelain  clay,  a  species  of  white  and  light  clay, 
of  which  the  Chinese  have,  from  time  immemorial,  fabricated 
exquisite  vases,  which  the  Europeans  have  only  recently  learned 
to  imitate  with  any  success. 

The  'population  is  of  the  Mongolian  or  yellow  race.  The 
Chinese  have  broad  faces,  flat  noses,  thick  lips,  long  ears,  small 


Chinese. 

eyes,  obliquely  placed,  and  inclining  towards  the  nose ;  they 
shave  their  hair,  with  the  exception  of  a  tuft,  which  they  wear  in 
a  braid  behind  their  heads  ;  their  hands  and  feet  are  small ;  and, 
moreover,  in  the  upper  classes,  the  feet  of  the  women  are  com- 
pressed, from  their  infancy  until  the  age  of  fifteen  years,  to  such 
a  degree,  that  they  remain  very  diminutive,  but  from  this  results 
a  swelling  of  the  ankle  bone,  which  renders  the  gait  heavy  and 
uncertain  ;  therefore  the  wealthy  females  scarcely  ever  go  out  of 
their  houses.  They  paint  their  faces  at  the  age  of  seven  years. 
A  man  is  allowed  several  wives.  Many  children  are  drowned, 
or  inhumanly  deserted  from  their  birth ;  the  father  has  always 
the  right  of  life  and  death  over  his  children,  and  that  of  selling 


i. 


118  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

them  as  slaves.  The  Chinese  are  generally  untruthful,  treacher- 
ous, selfish,  and  easily  bribed  ;  but  they  have  the  art  of  conceal- 
ing aU  their  vices  under  an  exterior  of  extreme  politeness.  On 
the  other  hand,  they  are  industrious  and  very  skilful ;  their  civ- 
ilization has,  in  many  respects,  far  outstripped  ours,  but  they  have 
long  since  ceased  to  make  any  progress. 


Feet  of  Chinese  Women. 

Their  religion  is  generally  the  Booddhist  idolatry ;  the  upper 
classes,  only,  adhere  to  the  religion  of  the  philosopher  Confucius, 
which  consists  of  little  but  a  collection  of  moral  precepts.  Some 
Catholic  missionaries  established  themselves  in  China,  and  at 
first  had  great  success  ;  more  recently,  however,  they  have  been 
cruelly  persecuted ;  but  they  still  count  quite  a  large  number  of 
disciples.  Protestant  missions  are  also  laboring  there,  and  have 
obtained  encouraging  success. 

3.  Plain  of  Siberia.  —  The  plain  of  Siberia  is  an  immense 
country,  which  extends  from  Behring's  Straits  as  far  as  the  Ural 
Mountains,  and  from  the  plateau  of  Eastern  Upper  Asia  even  to 
the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Its  aspect,  which  has  commonly,  although  erroneously,  been 
represented  as  uniformly  dreary,  is  extremely  diversified.  In 
the  southern  part,  the  traveller  finds  a  mountainous  country  cov- 
ered with  vast  forests,  or  carefully  cultivated  fields,  in  the  midst 
of  which  rise  the  huts  of  the  inhabitants,  sometimes  isolated, 
sometimes  clustered  in  villages.  Farther  north  extend  vast 
marshy  steppes,  interspersed  with  small  salt  lakes  without  out- 
let; here  the  forests  become  more  rare,  or  degenerate  into 
stunted  trees.     Still  farther  north,  and  all  along  the  coasts  of  the 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  119 

Arctic  Ocean,  one  encounters  only  immense  desert  solitudes, 
usually  veiled  by  icy  mists,  and  covered  with  mosses  and  lan- 
guishing plants,  where  the  soil  is  always  frozen  at  a  certain  depth, 
whilst  in  summer  the  surface  is  completely  transformed  by  the 
melting  of  the  snow  into  miry  swamps,  into  which  it  is  dangerous 
to  venture.  This  desert  is  called  the  moorland,  or  toundra.  The 
climate  is  not  universally  the  same ;  it  may,  however,  be  said  to 
be  every  where  very  cold.  At  the  north  the  winter  lasts  nine  or 
ten  months,  and  during  the  three  summer  months,  June,  July, 
and  August,  the  heat  is  powerful  enough  to  develop  quite  a  num- 
ber of  flowers,  and  to  ripen  a  few  small  wild  fruits.  At  the  ex- 
treme north,  the  sun  remains  above  the  horizon  52  days,  which 
makes  one  day  of  1248  hours ;  but  it  rises  to  so  little  height  that 
its  influence  is  scarcely  felt.  In  the  southern  portion,  on  the  con- 
trary, where  the  winter  endures  only  6  or  7  months,  the  climate 
is  so  mild  that  wheat  may  be  raised  there. 

The  vegetables  of  Siberia  are  of  little  note.  The  forests  of 
the  south  consist  of  linden,  alder,  poplar,  cedar,  fir,  and  birch 
trees  ;  a  little  barley,  wheat,  and  some  vegetables  are  cultivated. 
At  the  north,  the  women  collect,  in  summer,  many  aromatic  plants, 
roots  which  serve  as  food,  and  finally  small  berries,  which,  being 
immediately  thrown  into  water,  freeze,  and  are  thus  preserved  for 
the  winter.  But  in  proportion,  as  in  the  greater  part  of  Siberia, 
the  vegetable  kingdom  is  poor  and  meagre,  the  animal  kingdom 
is  rich  and  fruitful ;  thus  afibrding  another  instance  of  that  good- 
ness and  wisdom  of  the  Creator,  who,  even  in  the  least  favored 
countries  of  the  world,  has  taken  care  to  provide,  in  one  way  or 
another,  for  the  wants  of  all  his  children.  The  most  precious  gift 
which  Providence  has  bestowed  on  these  gloomy  countries  is  the 
reindeer^  a  large  animal  of  the  stag  species,  with  branching  and 
jagged  horns.  The  nomadics  of  the  north  utilize  it  in  a  hundred 
difitirent  ways.  They  attach  it  to  light  sledges,  in  which  they 
traverse  with  extreme  rapidity  very  great  distances.  The  female 
yields  milk  of  which  they  make  butter  and  cheese ;  the  flesh  is 
palatable,  and  may  easily  be  preserved  with  salt;  of  the  skin, 
garments,  harnesses,  and  saddles  are  made  ;  of  the  tendons,  twine 
and  thread ;  bottles  of  the  bladder,  and  various  utensils  of  the 
horns  and  bones.     The  reindeer  is  easily  maintained:  a  little 


I 


120  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

moss,  which  it  can  procure  for  itself,  even  in  winter,  by  scraping 
and  digging  under  the  snow  to  a  depth  of  several  feet,  composes 
ahnost  its  only  nourishment.  If  this  fails,  it  subsists  on  the  bark 
of  trees  and  the  buds  of  the  birches  and  firs. 


Rei7ideer. 

The  wild  reindeer,  which  are  the  principal  object  of  the  Sibe- 
rian chase,  are  subject  to  regular  emigrations,  during  which  they 
are  exposed  to  the  shots  of  their  enemies.  Thus  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  summer,  after  having  fattened  themselves  on  fresh 
moss  in  the  plains  of  the  north,  they  hasten,  at  the  first  approach 
of  cold,  to  regain  the  deep  forests  of  the  south,  where  they  are 
obliged  to  seek  shelter  during  the  winter.  They  arrive,  divided 
into  bands  of  three  or  four  hundred,  which,  all  assembled,  form  a 
troop  of  many  thousand  reindeer.  At  the  head  of  each  detach- 
ment is  a  deer  remarkable  for  its  strength  and  size,  and  which 
seems  to  serve  as  guide  to  the  rest.  The  hunters,  who  lie  in  wait 
for  them  concealed  on  the  borders  of  the  rivers,  spring  into  their 
canoes,  and  surrounding  these  animals  as  they  swim  across,  strike 
them  with  blows  of  the  lance,  and  in  a  few  moments  slay  a  great 
number.  Next  to  the  reindeer,  the  most  useful  animal  to  the 
populations  of  the  more  northern  countries  is  the  dog.  It  is  em- 
ployed in  drawing  the  sledges,  (as  we  have  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  Kamtchatka,)  in  conveying  provisions  and  merchandise, 
and  it  usually  aids  its  master  in  the  chase.  In  summer  they  are 
attached  to  the  boats  which  ascend  the  rivers,  and  it  is  wonderful 
to  see  with  what  dexterity  they  pause  when  it  is  necessary,  and 
dart  to  the  other  side  of  the  river,  by  swimming,  when  the  course 


THE    CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  121 

which  they  are  pursuing  is  obstructed  by  a  rock.  So  precious  is 
this  animal  to  these  tribes,  that  a  woman,  it  is  said,  having,  in  an 
epidemic,  lost  all  her  dogs,  with  the  exception  of  two,  a  male  and 
female,  resolved  to  save  them  by  nourishing  them  with  her  own 
milk.  She  accomplished  her  strange  resolution,  and  the  two  dogs 
thus  nurtured  produced  a  numerous  offspring. 

We  must  not  forget  the  horses  of  Siberia.  They  are  small,  but 
covered  with  thick  hair,  and  have  an  astonishing  capacity  for 
enduring  the  cold.  Whatever  may  be  the  severity  of  the  weather, 
they  exist  without  shelter,  laboriously  seeking  the  turf  buried 
beneath  the  snow.  Notwithstanding  this,  they  never  lose  their 
teeth,  and  are  still  in  working  condition  at  the  age  of  thirty  years. 

Among  the  animals,  the  chase  of  which  also  off(3rs  a  precious 
resource,  should  be  named  the  elk,  the  largest  of  stags,  remarka- 
ble for  the  very  wide  spreading  horns  which  ornament  its  head. 
The  neck  of  this  animal  is  so  short  that  it  is  obliged  to  spread 
and  bend  its  fore  legs  when  grazing;  it  feeds  therefore  more 
readily  on  foliage,  and  the  buds  and  bark  of  trees,  than  upon  grass. 
It  delights  especially  in  large  forests,  particularly  in  those  con- 
taining swamps,  in  which  it  plunges  and  remains  whole  days  dur- 
ing the  summer,  in  order  to  escape  the  stings  of  gadflies. 

Next  rank  the  fur-clad  animals  already  named,  (in  treating  of 
Kamtchatka,)  the  black,  blue,  or  silver  foxes,  martens,  sables, 
various  species  of  squirrels,  especially  the  minerer,  whose  skin  is 
so  widely  diffused  by  commerce,  and  otters,  quadrupeds  of  about 
two  feet  in  length,  with  thick  fur,  which  is  used  in  the  hat  trade, 
and  is  particularly  in  demand  among  the  Chinese :  this  animal 
lives  on  the  borders  of  rivers  ;  it  walks  with  difficulty,  owing  to 
the  shortness  of  its  legs,  but  it  swims  with  surprising  ease,  and 
can  remain  a  long  time  under  water ;  it  destroys  many  fish  in  the 
rivers  and  ponds  where  it  establishes  itself.  Numerous  flocks 
of  swans,  geese,  and  wild  ducks  arrive  every  spring,  driven 
thither  by  the  instinct  which  impels  them  to  seek  the  most  iso- 
lated places,  in  order  to  complete  their  moulting,  and  hatch  their 
eggs  in  these  desert  solitudes,  sheltered  from  the  pursuit  of  the 
hunter. 

But  man  is  not  the  sole  enemy  that  the  above-mentioned  ani- 
mals have  to  encounter  in  these  cold  regions.  To  say  nothing  of 
11 


122 


THE  GEOGRAPHY   OF   NATURE. 


the  brown  and  black  bears,  and  the  bands  of  wolves  and  foxes 
which  traverse  the  plains,  we  should  not  omit  to  mention  the 
glutton,  the  great  enemy  of  the  reindeer,  an  animal  with  short  legs 
and  of  the  size  of  a  dog ;  it  is  so  called  on  account  of  its  extreme 


voracity.     Its  fur,  of  a  dark  brov/n,  with  a  black  spot  on  the  back, 
is  much  esteemed  by  the  Russians,  wlio  prefer  it  indeed  to  any 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  Igj 

Other  (except  the  ermine)  for  trimming  bonnets  and  making 
cloaks.  The  glutton  lives  alone  in  a  burrow,  from  which  it 
issues  during  the  night,  to  visit  the  traps  of  hunters  and  possess 
itself  of  the  animals  which  are  caught  in  them.  It  sometimes 
stations  itself  on  a  tree  near  one  of  the  paths  tracked  by  the  rein- 
deer, when  he  leaves  the  forest  for  the  purpose  of  grazing  in  the 
plain ;  and  as  soon  as  the  animal  passes  within  its  reach,  it  darts 
forward,  springs  upon  his  back,  and  there  clings  with  such  force 
that  it  is  impossible  for  the  deer  to  extricate  himself  from  its 
clutch,  until  the  horrible  wound  inflicted  on  his  back  exhausts  him, 
and  he  falls  dying  on  the  turf.  The  glutton  then  begins  to  devour 
its  prey,  concealing  the  remnants  for  a  future  meal.  At  other 
times  it  is  cunning  enough  to  avail  itself  of  the  blue  fox  or  isatis, 
as  a  purveyor ;  when  it  hears  it  in  pursuit,  it  follows  the  sound 
of  its  voice,  and  arrives  at  the  spot  just  as  the  hare  is  in  the  act 
of  being  taken.  As  soon  as  the  glutton  appears,  the  isatis,  fear- 
ful of  being  devoured  himself,  takes  to  flight  and  abandons  his 
prey.  The  glutton  defends  itself  intrepidly  against  dogs  and 
hunters,  but  as  it  has  short  legs  and  cannot  run  fast,  it  is  easily 
overtaken  and  killed. 

But  the  greatest  torments  of  man  and  beast,  at  least  during  the 
summer  season,  are  the  mosquitoes  or  gnats.  In  July,  when  the 
air  becomes  clear,  and  one  is  prepared  to  enjoy  the  fine  weather, 
thick  swarms  of  these  insects  appear  like  clouds  against  the  sky. 
The  suffocating  smoke  of  great  heaps  of  moss  and  green  wood, 
which  are  set  on  fire  in  order  to  drive  them  away,  is  the  only 
preservative  against  these  odious  hosts.  And  yet  these  insects 
are  not  in  every  sense  an  evil.  They  render  the  greatest  ser- 
vices to  the  inhabitants  by  forcing  the  reindeer  to  abandon,  in  the 
spring,  the  depths  of  the  forests,  to  cross  the  toundra,  and  resort 
to  the  sea  shore,  where  the  air  is  colder,  and  where  winds  prevail 
which  disperse  the  mosquitoes. 

The  minerals  together  with  the  furs,  constitute  the  principal 
wealth  of  Siberia.  We  have  already  alluded,  in  connection  with 
the  Ural  and  Altai  Mountains,  to  the  ever-increasing  quantities 
of  gold,  silver,  platina,  iron,  and  copper,  which  are  found  in  these 
qold  regions.    Add  to  these  metals  a  great  number  of  precious 


124  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

stones  of  different  kinds ;  diamonds,  in  considerable  quantities ; 
aqua-marines,  species  of  emeralds  of  a  pale  green,  but  less  es- 
teemed than  others ;  and  the  malachite,  a  rich  stone  of  the  most 
beautiful  green,  in  whose  composition  copper  is  combined,  and 
which  is  capable  of  being  polished  and  moulded  into  vases,  cups, 
knife  handles,  &c.  At  the  great  Exhibition  at  London,  there  was 
displayed  the  entire  furniture  of  a  drawing  room  in  malachite  — 
tables,  arm  chairs,  chimney  piece,  and  doors. 

Population.  —  With  the  exception  of  the  Russians,  who  are 
the  ruling  power  in  this  country,  or  who  have  been  exiled  thither 
as  criminals  condemned  to  work  in  the  mines,  the  inhabitants  of 
Siberia  are  generally  of  the  Mongolian  race,  and  are  for  the  most 
part  reduced  to  a  state  bordering  on  barbarity ;  many,  however, 
have  been  baptized,  and  are  considered  Christians  of  the  Russian 
church ;  but  a  great  number  are  in  reality  only  poor  idolaters, 
worshipping  fetishes  in  wood  or  stone,  and  trembling  before  their 
schamans,  or  sorcerers,  whose  mission  it  is  to  appease  the  genius 
of  evil.  These  sorcerers  wear  a  long  robe  of  elk  skin,  adorned 
with  little  bells,  and  on  their  heads  great  horns,  which  are  orna- 
mented in  the  same  manner.  The  more  noise  they  make  in 
walking,  the  greater  is  the  respect  which  is  paid  to  them.  Almost 
all  these  populations  are  nomadic,  living  in  tents  or  huts  of  bark, 
in  the  midst  of  revolting  filth,  subsisting  on  rancid  meat,  or  dry 
and  often  tainted  fish,  and  drinking  with  evident  delight  the  fat 
of  the  seal  and  the  oil  of  the  whale.  They  are  also  passionately 
fond  of  tobacco,  brandy,  and  tea,  which  they  procure  in  exchange 
for  their  skins  and  furs. 

4.  The  Plain  of  Toorkistan.  —  "West  of  Eastern  Upper 
Asia  is  found  the  low  plain  of  Toorkistan,  situated  between 
the  Bolor  Mountains  and  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  between  the  pla- 
teaus of  Iran  and  Siberia. 

The  aspect  of  this  country  is  mountainous  at  the  south-east, 
where  are  found  delightful  valleys  ;  every  where  else  it  presents 
a  vast  plain,  or  rather  a  sandy  desert,  destitute  of  trees,  but  form- 
ing towards  the  south  steppes,  where  in  certain  places  the  grass 
exceeds  the  height  of  a  man,  while  elsewhere  the  desert  is  cov- 
ered with  salt  or  interrupted  by  salt  lakes.     Here  and  there, 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  125 

however,  smiling  oases  meet  the  eye,  and  on  the  borders  of  rivers 
fertile  fields,  as  also  very  beautiful  gardens  watered  with  the 
greatest  care. 

The  climate  is  fine  and  salubrious  at  the  south-east,  but  in 
the  plains  it  is  hot  and  arid  in  summer,  and  excessively  cold  in 
winter,  owing  to  the  winds  which  blow  directly  from  the  icy  plains 
of  Siberia. 

The  vegetables  offer  no  production  with  which  we  are  not  al- 
ready acquainted.  They  consist  of  grains,  rice,  cotton,  wine, 
and  excellent  fruits. 

The  animals,  likewise,  are  all  familiar  to  us.  They  are  very 
fine  horses,  camels,  large-tailed  sheep;  also  panthers,  hyenas, 
jackals,  and  bears. 

The  minerals  are,  on  the  contrary,  the  prominent  production 
of  Touran.  There  are  found  considerable  quantities  of  rubies, 
among  others  the  halass  ruby,  of  a  pale  rose  or  lilac  color,  and 
the  spinel  ruby,  of  a  clear  and  brilliant  red,  almost  as  much 
esteemed  as  the  Oriental  ruby ;  lapis  lazuli,  or  azure  stone,  which 
furnishes  a  magnificent  blue  color,  known  by  the  name  of  ultra- 
marine blue,  but  which  presents  the  disadvantage  of  being  exces- 
sively dear ;  and  turquoises,  beautiful  precious  stones  of  a  pale 
blue,  which  are  very  much  prized  by  the  Persians,  among  whom 
are  found  the  principal  mines  of  this  substance.  In  Touran  are 
also  found  many  salt  mines. 

The  population  is  composed  of  men  of  the  white  race,  and 
who  belong  to  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Turkish  family.  They 
are  all  Mahometans ;  the  greater  part  passionately  fond  of  war 
and  plunder,  and  reducing  each  other  to  slavery  in  the  course  of 
their  military  expeditions.  Those  who  inhabit  the  cities  labor 
very  skilfully  in  the  silk  and  leather  trades.  The  favorite  food 
of  the  nomadics  is  the  flesh  of  their  horses,  and  they  drink  the 
milk  of  the  mares  ;  they  let  it  become  sour,  in  order  that  it  may 
acquire  an  acid,  vinous  taste,  to  which  they  are  very  partial ;  by 
fermentation  they  obtain  from  it  the  koumiss,  an  intoxicating 
liquor,  of  which  the  chiefs  are  passionately  fond. 

5.  The  Plain  or  Deseet  of  Syria.  —  The  Desert  of 
Syria  is  another  vast  low  plain,  situated  between  the  plateaus  of 
Iran  and  Armenia,  the  high  countries  of  Syria  and  Judea,  and 
11* 


12^  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

the  plateau  of  Nedj'ed.  The  name  of  Mesopotamia  (which  sig- 
nifies, in  Greek,  between  the  rivers)  is  given  to  the  portion  of  the 
Desert  of  Syria  which  lies  between  the  two  celebrated  rivers 
known  by  the  names  of  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphra'tes. 

The  Desert  of  Syria  presents  generally,  throughout,  the  aspect 
of  a  plain  as  smooth  as  the  sea,  and  of  a  desolate  uniformity. 
Towards  the  north  it  is,  however,  a  little  broken  by  sand  hills, 
covered  with  meagre  pasturage;  at  the  south  are  found  vast 
marshes  and  salt  lakes. 

The  air  is  generally  pure  and  dry,  but  in  many  places  the 
miasm,  caused  by  the  stagnant  waters,  is  greatly  to  be  dreaded ; 
and  in  summer  the  air  in  these  bare  and  sandy  plains  becomes 
actually  scorching.  For  example,  at  Bassora,  a  city  situated  on 
the  Euphrates,  strangers  are  obliged  at  this  season  to  confine  them- 
selves within  doors  from  9  o'clock  until  4,  under  penalty  of 
receiving  a  fatal  sunstroke.  The  heat  causes  the  furniture  to 
crack,  and  iron,  glass,  and  all  substances  which  are  usually  cold 
to  the  touch,  now  impart  a  burning  sensation.  One  is  obliged  to 
retreat  into  a  gloomy  cellar,  where  his  time  would  be  passed  in 
perfect  inaction,  were  it  not  necessary  to  combat  the  mosquitos, 
who  also  seek  shelter  there.  A  very  tall  kind  of  chimney  estab- 
lishes a  current  of  air  in  the  vault,  where  visitors,  even,  are 
entertained. 

The  vegetation  is  that  of  the  desert :  saline  plants  are  scat- 
tered at  wide  intervals  over  the  burning  sands.  The  wormwood, 
a  plant  from  which,  in  Switzerland,  an  excellent  green  liquid  is 
obtained,  used  by  epicures  and  invalids  to  stimulate  the  appetite, 
spreads  in  this  desert,  like  the  heath  in  Europe,  over  immense 
spaces,  from  whence  it  banishes  every  other  plant.  J^icorice  is 
also  quite  common  there,  and  an  infusion  of  the  root  of  this  plant 
is  employed  for  correcting  the  taste  of  the  water,  generally  brack- 
ish and  bitter.  These  sterile  plains  were,  however,  once  covered 
with  opulent  cities,  and  a  numerous  population,  and  would  yet  be 
fertile  if  pains  were  taken  to  cultivate,  and  especially  to  irrigate, 
them.  Here  and  there,  on  the  borders  of  rivers,  may  be  seen 
excellent  tillage,  flocks,  towns,  and  villages,  with  gardens  and 
clusters  of  palm  trees.  Nevertheless,  the  general  character  of 
the  country  plains  is  that  of  desolate  solitudes,  over  which  yet 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  127 

seem  to  hang  the  judgments  of  God,  denounced  by  the  prophets 
upon  the  proud  cities  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon. 

The  animals  are  also  those  of  the  desert.  Flocks  of  the 
graceful  gazelle  traverse  these  plains,  where  formerly  wandered 
herds  of  wild  asses.  Concealed  in  the  rushes  along  the  rivers, 
the  lion  lies  in  wait  for  these  animals ;  but  when  his  unsatisfied 
hunger  is  disappointed  of  its  prey,  he  becomes  furious,  and  his 
terrible  roarings  resound  like  thunder  from  solitude  to  solitude. 
Horses,  camels,  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats  are  the  principal  animals 
useful  to  man. 

The  population,  few  in  number,  is  composed  of  men  of  dif- 
ferent races. 

At  the  north  are  tribes  of  Turcomans,  whose  villages,  and  tents 
of  black  camel's  hair  cloth,  are  scattered  far  and  wide.  The 
Yezidis,  the  wildest  of  all  the  Kurds,  wander  in  the  north-eastern 
plains.  They  acknowledge  God  like  the  Mahometans,  worship 
the  sun  like  the  Sabeans  of  Persia,  revere  the  Christian  priests, 
and  pay  especial  homage  to  the  devil,  Ahriman,  to  whom  they 
present  offerings  in  a  profound  cavern.  They  are  the  terror  of 
all  the  neighboring  populations.  At  the  south  the  country  is  oc- 
cupied only  by  Arabs,  who  are  nearly  independent,  and  who  sub- 
sist on  the  dates  of  their  gardens  and  the  product  of  their  flocks. 

Sect.  6.  Principal  Lakes  of  Asia.  —  Asia  contains  a 
vast  number  of  lakes,  of  which  we  shall  notice  only  the  best 
known  and  most  celebrated.  Some  are  lakes  of  salt  and  others 
of  fresh  water. 

1.  The  Caspian  Lake,  or  Sea.  —  Among  the  former  class 
we  will  first  name  the  largest  of  all  lakes,  the  Caspian  Sea,  an  im- 
mense basin,  into  which  empty  the  waters  of  many  great  streams 
and  rivers,  and  from  which  no  current  of  water  can  escape  into 
any  other  sea,  for  the  obvious  reason  that  this  basin  is  much 
below  the  level  of  the  ocean. 

The  waters  of  this  lake  are  not  very  salt,  but  they  are  more 
bitter  than  those  of  other  seas,  on  account  of  the  numerous  beds 
of  naphtha  which  are  found  towards  its  southern  extremity,  and 
of  which  we  have  spoken  in  connection  with  Caucasus.  Navi- 
gation is  dangerous  there,  on  account  of  the  violent  winds  from 
the  east  and  west.    The  Caspian  Sea  nourishes  a  great  abun- 


128  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

dance  of  fish ;  many  varieties  of  seals,  so  numerous  that  they 
furnish  the  food  of  some  of  the  bordering  populations ;  salmon, 
pike,  and  many  other  kinds,  less  known.  But  the  principal  pro- 
duction of  the  Caspian  Sea  is  the  sturgeon,  which  gives  rise  every 


Sturgeon. 

year  to  a  considerable  fishery.  There  are  many  species  of  this 
fish  ;  the  small  sturgeon,  or  sterlet,  which  is  the  most  famed,  and 
which  the  prodigious  extravagance  of  the  Russian  tables  has,  by 
a  very  expensive  process,  introduced  aUve  from  Astrachan  into 
St.  Petersburg ;  the  ordinary  sturgeon,  whose  flesh  bears  some 
analogy  to  veal ;  and  finally  the  great  sturgeon,  the  flesh  of  which 
is  far  less  valuable.  This  last  is  an  enormous  fish,  which  attains 
12  and  even  15  feet  in  length,  and  weighs  as  many  as  1000  or 
1200  pounds. 

The  sturgeon  destroys  many  small  fish :  it  is  to  the  Caspian 
Sea  what  the  shark  is  to  the  ocean.  Its  mouth,  placed  under  the 
nose,  is,  however,  small  and  unprovided  with  teeth.  Enormous 
quantities  of  them  are  taken ;  when  in  the  spring  they  ascend  the 
rivers  to  spawn,  many  thousands  are  sometimes  caught  in  a  day ; 
they  are  dried  or  saUed ;  and  of  the  eggs  which  are  found  in 
the  female,  the  caviare  is  prepared.  The  consumption  of  this 
dish  is  so  considerable,  that  its  preparation  is  an  important  branch 
of  industry  and  commerce  in  Russia.  It  is  stated  that  one  only 
of  these  fish  may  furnish  120  pounds  of  it.  The  best,  designed 
to  be  eaten  fresh,  is  that  which  is  prepared  by  cleansing  the  eggs 
in  a  sieve,  and  letting  them  remain  an  hour  in  the  brine,  (or  salt 
water,)  after  which  they  are  drained  through  another  sieve,  and 
then  packed  in  small  casks.  The  other  modes  of  preparation 
consist  in  salting  the  eggs,  and  afterwards  having  them  thoroughly 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  129 

dried.  It  is  of  the  natatory  bladder  of  the  great  sturgeon  that 
the  isinglass  is  made,  so  useful  in  the  arts.  That  which  we  meet 
with  in  commerce  is,  the  greater  part  of  it,  furnished  by  the 
Eussians,  who  procure  it  from  the  environs  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
where  it  is  almost  exclusively  prepared.  It  has  been  calculated 
that  1000  large  sturgeons  yield  about  300  pounds  of  isinglass ; 
the  sterlets  produce  only  a  third  of  this  quantity.  Isinglass  is 
used  for  a  variety  of  purposes  ;  for  making  mouth  glue,  for  the 
composition  of  jellies,  for  clarifying  wine,  and  finally  for  giving 
adhesiveness  to  court  plaster. 

2.  The  Aral  Lake.  —  East  of  the  Caspian  Sea  is  situated 
another  important  lake,  the  Aral  Lake,  Its  shores  are  covered, 
like  those  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  with  rushes ;  it  contains  also  many 
small  islands,  and  produces  sturgeons  and  seals.  Neither  has 
the  Aral  Lake  any  visible  outlet.  It  forms,  with  the  Caspian 
Sea,  a  vast  basin,  sunk  very  much  below  the  level  of  the  ocean, 
strewn  with  marine  shells,  fish,  and  saline  plants.  The  two  lakes 
are  now  separated  from  each  other  by  a  space  of  about  four  leagues 
of  quite  elevated  sandy  plains ;  but  they  are  known  to  have  been 
united  in  ancient  times,  and  their  waters  seem  to  be  gradually 
abating.  The  Aral  Lake  freezes  almost  every  winter.  This 
lake,  long  unimportant,  on  account  of  the  vast  solitudes  which 
border  it,  begins,  as  likewise  the  Caspian  Sea,  to  be  covered  with 
Russian  steamboats. 

3.  Lakes  Van  and  Ooroomee'yah.  —  The  Van^cndi  Ooroo- 
mee'yah  Lakes  are  both  in  the  plateau  of  Armenia.  The  former 
abounds  in  fish,  a  considerable  commerce  of  which  is  carried  on 
in  the  neighboring  provinces.  The  water  of  this  lake  is  so  alka- 
line, owing  to  the  soda  which  it  holds  in  solution,  that  the  people 
make  use  of  it  for  the  manufacture  of  soap.  The  Ooroomeeyah 
Lake  contains  salt  suificiently  pure  to  be  used  in  cooking ;  its 
waters  are,  together  with  those  of  the  Dead  Sea,  the  saltest  of  any 
which  are  known ;  and  they  are  so  heavy,  that  it  has  been  said 
that  a  man  can  sink  no  lower  than  his  shoulders  in  them.  They 
contain,  moreover,  no  fish. 

4.  The  Lake  Asphaltite,  or  Dead  Sea.  —  The  lake 
which  has  borne  the  names  of  Sea  of  Sodom,  Dead  Sea,  and 
Lake  Asphaltite,  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  the  world.    It 


130  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

is  situated  south-east  of  the  mountains  of  Judea,  of  which  we 
have  previously  spoken.  It  is  nearly  oval  in  form,  with  a  small 
peninsula  in  the  southern  portion  of  it.  It  is  much  farther  be- 
low the  level  of  the  ocean  than  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  a  great 
part  of  it  is  surrounded  by  high,  barren  mountains.  An  intense 
heat  reigns  there,  under  the  influence  of  which  the  waters  con- 
veyed there  by  the  Jordan  and  various  other  rivers  evaporate 
rapidly,  forming  over  the  sea  a  thick  mist,  which  is  only  dissi- 
pated by  the  sun's  rays ;  consequently  the  basin  of  this  lake 
needs  no  outlet. 

The  bed  of  the  lake  consists  of  two  entirely  distinct  parts ;  that 
at  the  north  being  very  deep,  the  other  less  considerable,  and  so 
shallow,  that  it  is  asserted  that,  when  in  summer  the  water  is 
low,  the  neighboring  Arabs  can  cross  by  a  ford,  from  the  small 
peninsula  at  the  south-east,  to  the  western  bank.  Therefore 
learned  men  believe  that  this  portion  of  the  plain  was  buried 
beneath  the  waters  until  the  period  of  the  terrible  overthrow 
recorded  in  the  Scriptures,  and  which  occasioned  the  destruction 
of  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  Zeboim,  and  Zoar.  For,  say  trav- 
ellers who  have  recently  visited  these  places,  "It  is  impossible 
not  to  recognize  the  terrible  traces  of  divine  wrath  upon  all  the 
western  bank  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  upon  a  portion  of  the  eastern 
bank.  In  sight  of  this  scorched  soil,  of  the  ashes  which  cover 
the  plain  of  Sabkah,  south  of  this  lake,  —  in  view  of  the  moun- 
tain of  salt  there  formed,  of  the  lavas  and  masses  of  bitumen 
which  are  encountered, — one  could  not  call  in  question  the  truth 
of  what  Moses  relates  on  the  subject  of  that  rain  of  brimstone 
and  fire,  accompanied,  undoubtedly,  by  earthquakes  and  volcanic 
eruptions,  which  reduced  to  desolation  a  country  hitherto  as  fair 
as  that  of  Egypt,  or  the  earthly  paradise."  (Gen.  xiii.  10,  19, 
24.)  The  volcanic  mountains  of  this  vicinity  are  no  longer  sub- 
ject to  eruptions,  which  is  also  the  case  with  the  ancient  volcanoes 
of  Auvergne ;  but  in  neither  instance  are  we  led  to  doubt  the  ter- 
rible nature  of  their  former  eruptions.  Moreover,  French  trav- 
ellers affirm  that,  south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  the  very  remains  of 
four  of  the  five  cursed  cities  destroyed  by  fire  may  be  recog- 
nized ;  their  identity,  however,  still  admits  of  doubt. 

Many  fables  ^e  related  gn  the  subject  of  the  waters  of  the 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  ASIA.  131 

Dead  Sea.  It  hag  been  said  that  they  were  black  and  muddy ; 
that  there  escaped  from  them  vapors  fatal  to  men  and  animals, 
and  even  to  the  birds  which  merely  flew  over  their  surface ;  that 
they  were  so  dense  that  men,  swimming,  could  not  sink  in  them ; 
and,  finally,  that  no  vegetation  could  be  found  on  their  borders, 
except  those  celebrated  apples  of  Sodom,  which,  from  their 
color,  appear  to  be  tempting  fruits,  but  which,  as  soon  as  touched 
by  the  hand,  dissolve  into  smoke  and  ashes. 

Modem  travellers,  on  the  contrary,  maintain  that  the  waters 
of  the  Dead  Sea  are  as  blue,  as  clear,  and  as  transparent  as  those 
of  any  other  lake,  except  that  in  some  places  masses  of  liquid 
bitumen  may  be  perceived  floating  on  the  surface.  It  neither 
emits  fire  nor  smoke,  but  during  the  night  the  waters  are  com- 
pletely phosphorescent,  and  the  waves,  breaking  against  the  shore, 
shed  a  sepulchral  light  over  the  brambles  and  fragments  of  rock 
dispersed  along  the  borders.  The  fish  which  the  Jordan  nour- 
ishes could  not  exist  in  tlie  salt  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea,  (which, 
in  this  respect,  well  merits  its  name ;)  but  it  has  never  been 
proved  that  the  fish  of  the  ocean  would  inevitably  perish  there. 
Ducks  and  other  aquatic  birds  frequent  this  sea,  and  the  equip- 
ment of  two  small  American  ships,  transported  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  into  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea,  remained  during 
three  weeks  upon  the  latter  without  material  detriment  to  the 
health  of  the  robust  sailors.  But  the  waters  are  very  sharp  and 
corrosive,  under  the  influence  of  the  excessive  heat ;  the  slightest 
scratch  festered  and  ulcerated,  and  the  sailors  complained  bitterly 
of  their  wounds  whenever  they  came  in  contact  with  the  water  of 
this  sea.  This  water  is  so  impregnated  with  saline  and  bitumi- 
nous substances,  that  it  is  much  more  dense  than  that  of  the  ocean ; 
a  person  can  therefore  swim  in  it  with  more  ease.  The  sailors 
above  mentioned  could  float  upon  it  so  comfortably  that  they 
might,  without  the  least  inconvenience,  "  there  pluck  a  chicken  or 
read  a  daily."  But  one  pays  a  severe  penalty  for  the  pleasure 
of  swimming  with  so  much  facility.  He  emerges  from  the  bath, 
his  body  entirely  covered  with  a  very  uncomfortable,  oily  sub- 
stance, which  occasions  painful  irritation  ;  should  he  remain  in  it 
many  hours  in  succession,  he  would  be  bereft  of  his  entire  skin. 
! When  these  sailors  wet  their  hands  in  rowing,  a  kind  of  moss  or 


132  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

froth  accumulated  upon  them,  and  their  skin  became  stiff  and 
raw.  In  certain  places,  the  borders  of  the  sea  are  so  incrusted 
with  salt,  that  they  look  as  if  whitened  by  Ume ;  elsewhere,  when 
the  waters  are  high,  shrubs  may  be  seen  whose  stalks  partly 
stretch  themselves  out  in  the  water,  and  whose  branches,  impreg- 
nated with  salt,  sparkle  in  the  rays  of  the  sun,  like  trees  when 
they  are  covered  with  hoar  frost. 

With  regard  to  the  vegetation,  it  is  true  that  the  general  char- 
acter of  the  borders  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  that  of  aridity  and  deso- 
lation. Nevertheless,  here  and  there,  wherever  a  small  stream 
is  to  be  met  with,  may  be  seen  tufts  of  beautiful  verdure,  thick 
reeds  which  rise  20  or  25  feet  high,  and  even  large  trees,  amid 
whose  foliage  sport  the  most  charming  birds,  among  others  the 
woodpecker  of  the  Indies,  with  its  wings  spotted  with  flame  color, 
gentle  turtle  doves,  with  the  grayish  violet  breast,  and  many  other 
denizens  of  the  air.  As  for  the  apples  of  Sodom,  they  are  the 
fruit  of  a  perennial  plant  which  grows  to  a  height  of  10  or  15 
feet.  This  fruit,  when  ripe,  resembles  a  large  apple  or  orange,  is 
of  a  yellow  hue,  and  agreeable  to  the  eye.  Filled  almost  entirely 
with  air,  hke  a  bladder,  it  bursts  with  a  report  as  soon  as  pressed ; 
there  then  escapes  from  it  a  little  very  fine  white  dust,  and  this 
dust  being  scattered,  there  remains  a  tuft  of  seeds  which  are  very 
similar  to  the  down  of  little  birds.  This  plant  is  found  also  in 
Persia  and  Arabia. 

5.  Lake  op  Tiberias.  —  Among  the  numerous  fresh  water 
lakes  of  Asia  should  be  mentioned,  first  of  all,  (although  one  of 
the  smallest,)  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret,  also  called  Sea  of  Galilee, 
or  Tiberias,  situated  north-east  of  the  mountains  of  Judea,  and 
traversed  by  the  Jordan.  It  is  almost  oval  in  form,  from  15  to 
21  miles  in  length  and  9  in  width ;  its  waters  are  usually  blue, 
calm,  and  transparent  as  ice.  It  is  also  very  full  of  fish.  When 
the  mountains,  by  which  this  placid  basin  is  encompassed,  were 
covered  with  vegetation,  this  must  have  been  a  superb  country : 
the  Mahometans,  also,  regarded  it  as  one  of  the  four  terrestrial 
paradises ;  but  now  almost  all  the  cities  or  villages  are  in  ruins, 
and  there  are  no  trees  on  the  borders  of  the  lake  except  a  cluster 
of  olives  near  the  site  of  Capernaum,  and  a  few  palm  trees,  which 
bow  their  plumed  heads  over  the  terraced  roofs  of  the  half-ruined 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  ASIA.  138 

city  of  Tiberias.  A  throng  of  touching  recollections  associate 
themselves,  in  the  Christian's  mind,  with  the  name  of  this  cele- 
brated lake.  It  was  almost  entirely  upon  its  borders  that  Jesus 
passed  the  three  years  of  his  ministry;  it  was  there  that  he 
selected  his  apostles  from  among  the  poor  fishermen  —  there  that 
he  healed  so  many  diseases,  and  preached  to  the  enthusiastic 
multitudes,  who,  on  one  occasion,  desired  to  make  him  king ;  it 
was  upon  its  waters  that  he  so  often  sailed,  and  that  by  a  word 
he  stilled  one  of  those  hurricanes,  which,  suddenly  bursting  from 
one  of  the  gorges  of  the  neighboring  mountains,  violently  broke 
loose  upon  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  Miraculous  fisheries,  multiplica- 
tion of  bread,  prayers  in  isolated  places  among  these  mountains, 
menaces  addressed  to  the  cities  remaining  insensible  to  so  many 
miracles,  —  how  many  are  the  striking  events  which  impart  an 
interest  to  this  little  corner  of  the  earth,  which  for  a  few  years 
was  pressed  by  the  feet  of  our  beloved  Saviour ! 

6.  Lake  Baikal.  —  Another  fresh  water  lake,  whose  extent 
entitles  it  to  a  brief  mention,  is  the  Baikal  Lake,  which  the  Rus- 
sians and  Chinese  more  appropriately  designate  by  the  name  of 
sea,  for  the  surface  which  it  occupies  is  of  no  less  extent  than 
that  of  entire  Switzerland. 

It  is  situated  at  the  south  of  Siberia,  is  of  very  elongated  form, 
and  surrounded  by  wild  and  picturesque  mountains.  This  lake, 
frequently  agitated  by  terrible  tempests,  is  generally  deep,  but 
filled  with  islands,  shoals,  and  shallows,  which  impede  navigation. 

It  is  very  fruitful  in  fish.  Sturgeons  are  found  there,  but  the 
inhabitants  principally  subsist  by  the  fishing  and  hunting  of  seals, 
which  afford  them  a  very  considerable  revenue,  also  augmented 
by  the  gathering  of  the  sea  sponges.  It  is  moreover  imprisoned 
in  ice,  every  winter,  during  five  months. 

Sect.  7.  Rivers  op  Asia.  —  In  proportion  to  its  great  ex- 
tent, Asia  possesses  few  rivers.  Upon  the  plateaus  immense 
spaces  are  completely  destitute  of  running  water,  and  no  river 
presents  a  navigable  path  by  which  vessels  can  penetrate  to  the 
centre  of  the  continent,  on  account  of  the  cataracts  and  rapids 
which  intercept  navigation  at  the  foot  of  the  plateaus. 

1.  It  is  our  intention  to  designate  the  principal  of  these  rivers, 
commencing  with  those  of  Siberia :  the  Ohe,  the  Temse'i,  and  the 
12 


134  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

Lena^  which,  rising  among  the   mountains  of  Eastern  Upper 
Asia,  flow  from  east  to  west,  and  empty  into  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

These  three  rivers  are  among  the  most  important  in  Asia. 
They  are  navigable  even  before  quitting  the  mountainous  regions, 
and  their  course  generally  lies  through  perfectly  smooth  coun- 
tries, slightly  inclining  towards  the  north.  But  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  make  these  advantages  useful:  frozen  during  six 
months,  these  rivers  traverse  deserted  plains  which  are  swept 
during  almost  the  whole  year  by  the  icy  winds  of  the  pole, 
and  they  finally  empty  into  a  sea  obstructed  by  ice,  where 
vessels  dare  not  venture.  Commerce  and  navigation  cannot  then 
acquire  great  activity  upon  the  banks  of  these  powerful  water- 
courses. 

-  But  as  if  in  compensation  for  this  disadvantage,  these  rivers 
have,  through  God's  bounty,  been  rendered  the  essential  resource 
and  maintenance  of  the  unfortunate  populations  of  these  cold 
countries,  whose  soil  resists  all  cultivation.  They  all  abound  in 
fish,  which  is  the  principal  food  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  north  of 
Siberia.  It  is  estimated  that  at  least  three  millions  of  herrings 
a  year  are  required  for  the  subsistence  of  a  hundred  families. 

As  soon  as  the  spring  approaches,  nets  are  spread  under  the 
ice ;  but  the  first  fish  which  are  caught  being  very  poor,  they  are 
cut  open,  dried,  and  reserved  as  food  for  the  dogs ;  the  inwards 
furnish  a  great  quantity  of  oil.  In  the  month  of  June  the  ice  of 
the  river  breaks  up,  fish  abound,  and  all  the  inhabitants  are  occu- 
pied in  collecting  provisions  for  the  following  year ;  the  blocks  of 
ice,  however,  often  accumulate,  causing  inundations  and  other 
serious  disasters.  But  as  soon  as  the  rivers  have  resumed  their 
uninterrupted  course,  the  great  fishery  commences,  upon  which 
the  hfe  and  well  being  of  the  people  principally  depend.  The 
month  of  September  is  sometimes  extraordinarily  fruitful.  It  is 
not  then  uncommon  to  See  the  fishermen  take  in  a  single  net  as 
many  as  40,000  herrings  within  the  space  of  three  or  four  days. 
After  the  fish  have  been  cut  open,  and  their  bones  removed,  they 
are  dried  and  smoked,  in  order  to  preserve  them ;  but  the  upper 
part  is  separated  and  dried  by  itself,  being  considered  the  most 
delicate:  it  is  afterwards  pounded  in  a  mortar  with  a  little  fat, 
and  the  mixture  packed  away  in  jars  for  winter  use. 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA. 


135 


Three  other  rivers  of  Asia  empty  into  tlie  Pacific  ocean  —  the 
Amoor,  the  Jloang'-ho,  and  the  Tang'-tse-Kiang'. 

2.  The  Amoor,  or  Saghali'en,  is  a  gi'eat  river  which  descends 
from  the  plateau  of  Mongoha  into  that  of  Mantchooria,  and  after- 
wards empties  into  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  It  is  covered  with  ice  in 
winter,  notwithstanding  its  extreme  rapidity :  it  is  only  imper- 
fectly known,  but  appears  to  be  bordered  with  thick  forests,  and 
contains  many  fish,  otters,  and  beavers.      Neither  the  beavers 


Beaver. 


of  Europe  nor  Siberia  are  possessed  of  the  characteristics  attrib- 
uted to  those  of  North  America.  The  former  neither  construct 
habitations  nor  dams  in  the  rivers,  as  is  related  of  those  in  Amer- 
ica, but  live  in  burrows  dug  on  the  borders  of  streams,  where 
they  deposit  for  the  winter  a  store  of  bark,  buds,  and  tender  wood, 
which  constitute  their  ordinary  nourishment.  They  seem,  indeed, 
to  be  deficient  in  intelligence. 

The  beaver  is  an  amphibious  animal  of  the  size  of  the  badger. 
Its  head  is  rounded,  its  ears  short,  and  its  hind  feet  webbed, 
which  gives  it  great  facility  in  swimming  ;  its  tail,  thick,  flat,  and 
covered  with  scales,  serves  it  for  a  rudder.  Its  hair,  usually 
black  or  brown,  is  very  rough ;  but  underneath  it  presents  a  fine 
and  compact  fur,  impervious  to  water,  and  very  much  in  demand 
for  the  manufacture  of  caps.  Beavers  subsist  on  the  bark  of  trees 
and  on  fish,  which  they  dexterously  seize  by  diving.  They  arc 
excellent  swimmers,  but  on  land  have  a  clumsy  gait,  and  run  very 


136  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

badly.  Althougli  extremely  shy  they  may  be  easily  tamed.  It 
is  not  rare  to  see  them,  in  France,  in  a  domestic  state. 

On  the  borders  of  the  River  Amoor,  and  in  Siberia,  the  beaver 
hunt  is  practised  by  means  of  snares  or  traps,  which  are  spread 
under  the  water,  surmounted  by  a  slender  willow  twig,  besmeared 
with  a  substance  whose  odor  attracts  these  animals.  They  are 
hunted  rather  for  the  sake  of  their  fur,  which  is  highly  esteemed 
in  the  hat  trade,  than  for  their  flesh,  the  latter  being  very  unpala- 
table. But  one  object  of  this  chase  is,  to  procure  a  fat  and  odo- 
riferous substance  contained  in  two  pouches  which  the  beavers 
have  under  the  body,  and  which,  under  the  name  of  castoreum, 
was  formerly  much  used  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant. 

3.  The  Hoang'-ho,  or  Yellow  River,  owes  its  name  to  the  sand 
which  it  sweeps  in  vast  quantities  from  the  steppes  of  Eastern 
Upper  Asia,  conducting  it  to  the  sea  in  such  abundance  that 
the  waters  are  dyed  yellow  by  it  for  a  great  distance;  from 
this  circumstance  it  has  received  the  name  of  Yellow  Sea.  This 
river  is  very  rapid  ;  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course  it  is  enclosed 
by  dikes,  but  in  the  great  freshets  it  overthrows  or  surmounts 
them,  submerging  fields  and  villages,  and  causing  great  ravages. 
Like  all  the  other  rivers  of  China,  the  above  contains  abundance 
of  fish,  and  the  Chinese,  whom  we  have  already  characterized  as  a 
very  industrious  people,  do  not  fail  to  avail  themselves  of  this 
resource.  They  possess  the  art,  for  example,  of  taming  and  train- 
ing otters  and  cormorants  for  the  fishery.  The  otters  are  held  in 
leash  by  means  of  a  chain  and  collar,  in  order  that  they  may  not 
escape  too  far,  and  as  soon  as  they  espy  the  fish  under  water,  they 
dive,  seize,  and  bring  it  to  their  master.  A  well  trained  otter  is 
valued  in  China  at  $100.  As  for  the  cormorants,  which  are  much 
less  highly  prized,  the  Chinese  fishermen  are  in  the  habit  of  tak- 
ing with  them,  on  a  bamboo  raft,  ten  or  twelve  of  these  birds,  in  a 
famished  condition.  One  or  two  of  them  are  allowed  to  dive  at  a 
time,  and  soon  reappear  holding  in  their  hooked  beak  the  fish, 
which  they  lay  submissively  at  the  feet  of  the  fisherman.  If  the 
bird  loiters  and  neglects  its  task,  the  master,  armed  with  a  long 
bamboo  pole,  agitates  the  water  around  him  by  way  of  reprimand, 
and  immediately,  like  a  heedless  pupil  whom  the  teacher  calls  to 
order,  the  cormorant  returns  to  its  duties.      A  ring  is  always 


THE   CONTINENT   OP   ASIA.  137 

placed  around  its  neck  to  prevent  it  from  swallowing  the  fish. 
The  cormorants  are  only  employed  in  the  fishery  from  the  month 
of  October  to  that  of  May.  Their  owners  carry  them  to  the  wa- 
ter side  every  day,  and  there  keep  them  from  about  ten  o'clock 
in  the  morning  until  five  in  the  afternoon,  but  do  not  suffer  them 
to  fish :  this  is  done  to  whet  their  appetites.  It  is  at  night,  espe- 
cially, by  the  light  of  their  charming  little  colored  lanterns,  that 
the  Chinese  carry  on  this  fishery  with  the  cormorant,  which  then 
presents  a  most  picturesque  spectacle. 

4.  The  Yang'-tse-Kiang\  or  Blue  River,  commonly  called  the 
Kiang',  or  River  par  excellence,  is  the  largest  watercourse  in 
China.  It  issues  from  the  same  plateaus  as  the  Yellow  River, 
afterwards  diverges  widely  from  it,  directing  its  course  south- 
easterly, and  then  again  approaches  before  emptying  its  blue  wa- 
ters into  the  great  ocean.  It  often  inundates  the  plain  which  it 
fertilizes,  traverses  great  lakes,  receives  an  infinite  number  of 
rivers,  and  acquires  considerable  depth.  "  The  ocean  is  without 
limits,  and  the  Kiang  without  bottom,"  say  the  Chinese.  In  the 
lower  part  of  its  course,  it  averages  from  9  to  15  miles  in  breadth, 
and  it  is  often  impossible  to  perceive  the  two  banks  at  the  same 
time. 

The  Kiang  is  capable  of  receiving  the  largest  ships,  and  sup- 
plies a  great  number  of  canals  with  water,  among  others  the  cel- 
ebrated Imperial  Canal,  the  longest  in  the  whole  world.  We  can 
form  no  idea  of  the  immense  number  of  commercial  vessels  towed 
one  after  another  over  this  river.  The  whole  length  of  the  Kiang 
is  bordered  with  them ;  and  among  this  multitude  of  ships  which 
follow  each  other  in  single  file,  it  is  necessary  for  each  to  preserve 
its  rank  from  those  who  would  usurp  it,  under  penalty,  once  out 
of  the  line,  of  not  being  suffered  to  reenter  it  for  a  month  or 
more.  Hence  quarrels  and  clamorous  disputes  are  constantly 
arising. 

But  what  surprises  one  most,  on  the  Kiang,  are  enormous  rafts 
formed  of  building  and  fire  wood,  on  which  live  and  float  a  popu- 
lation of  sufficient  size  to  constitute  a  kind  of  village.  This  vil- 
lage of  cabins  is  rudely  constructed  of  the  very  wood  which  is 
undergoing  the  process  of  transportation  ;  here  are  found  people 
of  every  calling  —  butchers,  bakers,  fishmongers,  rice,  fruit,  and 
12* 


138         THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

liquor  merchants.  Some  of  these  rafts  are  said  to  be  more  than 
a  quarter  of  a  league  in  length,  and  the  cabins  are  so  arranged  as 
to  form  a  street.  In  order  to  propel  them,  anchors,  carried  in 
advance  by  the  aid  of  boats,  are  cast  into  the  river,  and  by  means 
of  the  cables  which  are  attached  to  them,  the  people  on  the  raft 
slowly  and  patiently  progress  towards  their  destination.  As  soon 
as  this  is  reached,  the  village  and  raft  are  taken  to  pieces  and 
sold. 

5.  Four  rivers  descend  from  the  plateau  of  Thibet,  or  the  val- 
leys of  Sinechan,  traverse  Indo  China  from  north  to  south,  and 
empty  into  the  Indian  Ocean  ;  the  two  first  the  May-Kiang  and 
the  Menam^  east  of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  and  the  two  latter 
the  Thaleain  and  the  Irrawaddy,  west  of  this  peninsula.  Each 
of  these  rivers  inundates,  during  the  rainy  season,  the  low  plain 
which  it  waters,  and  this  moisture  is  favorable  to  the  cultivation 
of  rice,  which  is  the  principal  sustenance  of  the  inhabitants ;  it  is 
sometimes  so  abundant  in  the  granaries,  and  at  so  low  a  price, 
that  the  new  crop  is  suffered  to  dry  up,  not  being  considered 
worth  the  trouble  of  harvesting. 

All  these  rivers  produce  a  great  number  of  crocodiles,  which 
are  likewise  found  in  all  the  rivers  of  the  south  of  Asia.     The 


Crocodile. 

gavial,  or  crocodile  of  the  Ganges,  is  a  huge  species  of  lizard, 
twelve  feet  in  length,  as  large  as  a  man,  and  covered  with  scales 
so  hard  that  a  musket  ball  cannot  penetrate  them.  They  often 
seize  and  devour  persons  who  come  to  the  river  side  to  bathe  or 
draw  water.  On  land  they  are  little  to  be  feared,  as  they  move 
slowly,  and  have  much  difficulty  in  changing  their  course ;  conse- 
quently one  can  easily  avoid  them  by  abruptly  varying  his  own. 


THE    CONTINENT  OF  ASIA.  139 

The  females  deposit  their  eggs  in  five  or  six  hiding-places,  which 
they  cover  over  with  mud  and  sand,  leaving  it  for  the  sun  to 
hatch  them ;  but  very  few  of  these  little  crocodiles  escape  the 
voracity  of  the  males,  or  that  of  large  fish  and  certain  aquatic 
birds.  If  it  were  not  for  all  these  causes  combined,  the  rivers 
would  soon  be  encumbered  with  these  dangerous  animals.  The 
marshes  bordering  on  these  rivers  also  abound  in  serpents.  If 
these  reptiles  happen  to  be  surprised  by  an  inundation,  nothing 


Serpent. 

more  hideous  can  be  conceived  than  the  spectacle  presented  by 
swarms  of  them  writhing  among  the  branches  of  the  great  trees 
on  which  they  have  sought  a  refuge  from  the  waters.  These  riv- 
ers are  too  imperfectly  known  to  enable  us  to  enter  into  more 
particular  details. 

6.  The  Ganges,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  rivers  in  Asia, 
descends  from  the  southern  declivities  of  the  Himalaya,  receives 
the  rivers  of  Hindostan  and  Bengal,  and  empties  into  the  sea 
through  eight  great  mouths,  generally  obstructed  at  the  entrance 
by  sand,  driven  thither  by  the  south  winds,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Hoogly,  the  most  western  branch,  which,  by  the  aid  of  experi- 
enced pilots,  can  always  be  navigated,  and  which  is  habitually 
covered  with  multitudes  of  vessels  bound  for  Calcutta,  the  capital 
of  India.  Between  these  different  branches  of  the  river  extend 
flat  and  marshy  islands,  covered  with  impenetrable  forests,  known 
by  the  name  of  Sunderhunds.  These  forests,  which  are  the 
retreat  of  tigers  and  other  wild  beasts,  are  uninhabitable  on  ac- 
count of  their  insalubrity.  The  Ganges  has  regular  inundations, 
which  fertilize  the  rich  country  that  it  waters.  Towards  the  end 
of  July,  all  the  low  portions  of  Bengal,  bordering  on  the  river, 
are  inundated,  and  form  a  sheet  of  water  more  than  30  leagues 
in  breadth.  The  houses  and  trees  only  appear  above  the  surface 
of  the  waters. 


140  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

The  Ganges  is  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  the  Hindoos ;  in  their 
courts  of  justice  they  swear  by  the  waters  of  the  Ganges,  as 
Christians  take  oath  on  the  Bible,  and  Mahometans  on  the  Koran'; 
innumerable  pilgrims  resort  to  this  river  to  perform  their  ablu- 
tions, and  to  draw  the  water,  which  they  often  convey  to  many 
hundreds  of  leagues  distance :  but  there  are  some  points  more 
sacred  than  others  ;  for  instance,  the  confluences  of  the  river. 
Morning  and  evening  they  assemble  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  in 
order  to  practise  all  kinds  of  superstitious  ceremonies.  They 
carry  the  sick  and  dying  to  its  borders  to  plunge  them  into  the 
waves,  or  anoint  them  with  the  slime  of  the  sanctifying  river ; 
after  death  the  body  is  thrown  into  the  water,  where  it  floats  with 
the  tide  until  devoured  by  a  crocodile,  or  until  the  current  has 
cast  it  upon  the  bank,  a  prey  to  the  vultures  and  jackals.  These 
floating  corpses  are  a  very  common  spectacle  on  the  rivers  of 


Woman  throwing  her  Child  to  the  Crocodile. 

But  the  mo?t  heart-rending  sight  is  that  of  the  unnatural  par- 
ents who  go  thither  to  cast  their  children  into  the  sacred  river, 
in  order  to  propitiate  their  cruel  divinities.      They  walk  up  and 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  141 

down  on  the  borders  of  the  Ganges,  and  while  the  innocent  little 
creature  clings  confidingly  to  her  who  gave  it  life,  the  heartless 
mother,  unloosing  the  hand  which  clasps  her  own,  thrusts  her  in- 
fant into  the  midst  of  the  waves,  and  calm  and  immovable  as  a 
statue,  passively  regards  its  struggles  with  death.  It  is  no  rare 
thing  to  see  these  fanatic  mothers  throw  their  children  to  the 
horrid  crocodiles,  which  are  even  more  abundant  in  this  river  than 
in  those  of  Indo  China,  and  feast  on  the  hideous  spectacle  of  these 
voracious  animals  contending  for  the  palpitating  limbs  of  the  un- 
fortunate little  victim. 

7.  The  Indus,  (or  the  Stndh,)  another  great  river  of  India, 
takes  its  source  in  Thibet,  behind  the  lofty  chain  of  the  Hima- 
laya, flows  first  north-easterly,  then  turns  abruptly  to  the  south, 
tumultuously  traversing  the  wild  and  narrow  gorges  which  sep- 
arate the  Himalaya  from  Hindoo  Koosh,  and  afterwards  enters 
vast  plains,  which  it  partly  fertilizes  by  its  inundations,  finally 
emptying,  through  several  mouths,  into  the  Sea  of  Oman. 

The  Indus  conveys  to  the  sea  a  much  more  considerable  body 
of  water  than  the  Ganges ;  but  the  latter,  like  the  Chinese  rivers, 
widens  in  some  portions  of  its  course  like  an  immense  lake,  which 
gives  it  an  imposing  appearance  that  the  Indus,  almost  always 
limited  in  its  course,  does  not  present.  Moreover,  as  its  tide  does 
not  rise  as  high,  and  as,  instead  of  crossing  fertile  plains,  like  the 
Ganges,  the  Indus  traverses  countries  almost  entirely  barren, 
arid,  and  thinly  peopled,  its  navigation  is  far  less  extensive  than 
that  of  the  rich  river  by  which  Bengal  diffuses  through  the  whole 
world  the  wealth  of  her  manifold  and  precious  productions. 

Without  the  Indus  and  its  beneficent  inundations,  the  whole 
country  called  Sinde  would  become  a  desert,  like  that  which  lies 
between  this  country  and  Hindostan,  properly  so  called.  In  many 
places  the  sands  stretch  almost  to  the  river,  and  are  only  sep- 
arated from  it  by  a  narrow,  fertile,  and  cultivated  strip  of  land. 
Houses,  constructed  of  coarse  mats,  on  the  very  banks  of  the 
river,  are  elevated  on  platforms  supported  by  strong  posts  from 
12  to  15  feet  high,  and  furnish  a  refuge  during  the  inundations. 

The  soil  of  the  delta,  formed  by  the  different  branches  of  the 
river  at  its  mouth,  is  quite  rich,  but  poorly  cultivated,  and  for  the 
most  part  covered  with  dwarfish,  although  vigorous,  vegetation ; 


142  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

ibrming  impenetrable  thickets,  known  in  India  by  the  name  of 
jungles.  The  products  of  the  fishery  are  considerable,  and  even 
yield  the  bordering  populations  valuable  revenues. 

8.  The  Persian  Gulf  receives  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris  ;  those  two  renowned  rivers,  which,  rising  in  the 
plateau  of  Armenia,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ararat,  infolded,  in  a 
manner,  the  cradle  of  humanity,  and  were  silent  witnesses  of  the 
fall  of  the  first  man  ;  (Gen.  ii.  14:)  on  their  borders  was  erected 
the  tower  of  Babel,  and  Nimrod  and  Ashur  there  laid  the  foun- 
dations of  Babylon  and  Nineveh. 

The  clear  and  calm  waters  of  the  Euphrates  are  regarded  by 
the  Arabs  as  efl[icacious  in  the  cure  of  almost  every  complaint ; 
its  banks  are  low,  and  as  it  is  subject  to  periodical  risings,  its 
inundations  often  transform  the  plain  of  Babylon  into  a  vast  sea. 
Formerly,  by  surrounding  the  river  with  dikes,  and  conducting 
the  water  thence  into  canals,  the  ancient  Babylonians  succeeded 
in  rendering  these  countries  such  as  to  rank  among  the  most  fer- 
tile in  the  world.  Wheat,  barley,  and  sesame,  are  affirmed  to 
have  grown  wild  there ;  the  wheat  yielded  in  the  proportion  of 
from  200  to  300  fold.  These  canals  have  become  filled  up, 
through  the  negligence  of  the  inhabitants,  and  they  are  now 
obliged  to  force  up  the  waters  of  the  river  by  means  of  pulleys 
and  oxen,  in  order  to  diffuse  them  into  small  canals,  designed  to 
irrigate  the  adjacent  fields,  which  would  otherwise  remain  a  barren 
desert.  The  river  first  descends  through  steep  gorges,  forming  a 
great  number  of  falls,  which  render  navigation  impossible  :  after 
reaching  the  plain,  it  is  bordered  with  forests  of  willows  and 
tamarisks ;  below  commence  fixed  habitations  and  cultivated 
fields,  with  numerous  herds  of  goats,  sheep,  and  oxen. 

The  Tigris,  on  the  contrary,  which  owes  its  name  to  the  im- 
petuosity of  its  waters,  rolls  its  muddy  waves  between  steep  and 
wooded  banks.  The  Euphrates,  in  spite  of  some  rapids,  (or  small 
waterfalls,)  and  a  few  sand  banks,  has  been  ascended  by  steam- 
boats as  far  as  the  foot  of  the  Armenian  Mountains,  but  the 
Tigris  is  scarcely  navigable  at  all.  It  is  seldom  crossed  or 
descended,  except  with  kihes — a  kind  of  rafts,  sustained  by  leather 
bottles,  of  sheep  or  goat  skins,  carefully  sewed  and  inflated  with 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  ASIA.  143 

air.  These  bottles  can  support  enormous  weights.  A  raft  of  40 
bottles  is  capable  of  transporting  a  piece  of  heavy  artillery,  with 
five  artillery  men  ;  horses  are  often  made  to  mount  them,  but  it 
is  more  common  to  attach  them  behind,  and  they  follow  by  swim- 
ming. The  raft  is  covered  with  a  bed  of  leaves,  on  which  mats 
or  carpets  are  spread  for  travellers  ;  in  the  descent  of  the  river, 
the  rapidity  of  the  current  renders  the  use  of  oars  unnecessary ; 
they  are  only  employed  in  steering  and  avoiding  dangerous  whirl- 
pools ;  moreover,  if  the  boat  chances  to  be  struck,  and  to  sink  to 
a  certain  depth,  it  immediately  rights  itself,  and  no  danger  en- 
sues. After  having  thus  descended  the  river,  the  frame  of  the 
raft  is  sold  to  advantage  in  the  plain  of  Mesopotamia,  where 
wood  is  very  rare.  A  single  horse  or  mule  suffices  to  transport 
the  skins  to  their  former  place  of  destination. 

The  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  unite  a  little  above  the  city  of 
Bassora,  but  their  waters  flovs^  a  long  time  in  the  same  bed  with- 
out blending.  They  then  bear  the  name  of  Shat-el-Arab,  (River 
of  the  Ai'abs,)  and  traverse  a  marshy  country,  where  the  naviga- 
tor can  scarcely  discern  the  bed  of  the  river. 

9.  The  Oxus  and  the  Jaxar'tes,  like  the  two  preceding,  and 
those  of  China,  are  twin  rivers,  which  rise  in  the  same  moun- 
tains and  flow  alike  into  the  Aral  Sea.  In  the  steppes,  of 
which,  as  has  been  remarked,  the  plain  of  Toorkistan  is  almost 
exclusively  composed,  there  are  no  signs  of  industry ;  not  a 
town  nor  village  is  to  be  found ;  but  in  the  valleys  formed  by 
these  two  rivers,  one  discovers  thrifty  towns  of  considerable 
size,  and  a  fertile  soil,  where  agriculture  has  effected  wonders. 
A  number  of  canals,  supplied  with  water  by  the  Oxus  and  Jax- 
artes,  divide  the  country  into  numerous  small  islands ;  some 
of  which  are  transformed  into  gardens,  producing  excellent  fruits 
—  apples,  peaches,  apricots,  figs,  almonds,  pomegranates,  and 
pistachios  ;  others,  into  fields  of  buckwheat,  wheat,  and  even  cot- 
ton ;  and,  finally,  others  converted  into  rich  pastures,  nourishing 
fine  races  of  sheep,  oxen,  and  horses,  as  likewise  camels  and 
goats.  Unfortunately,  the  inroads  and  depredations  of  warlike 
tribes  unceasingly  menace  the  prosperity  of  the  industrious  popu- 
lations, who  devote  themselves  to  agriculture. 


144  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

10.  In  conclusion,  we  must  say  a  few  words  of  a  river  much 
smaller  than  the  preceding,  but  far  more  widely  known,  viz.,  the 
Jordan^  whose  name  so  often  recurs  in  Bible  history,  from  the 
period  when  Joshua  miraculously  crossed  it,  at  the  head  of  his 
people,  marching  to  the  conquest  of  the  Promised  Land,  to  the 
time  when  John  the  Baptist,  Christ,  and  his  apostles  there  bap- 
tized the  repentant  multitudes,  who  flocked  to  them  from  all 
quarters. 

The  Jordan  takes  its  rise  in  a  deep  grotto  at  the  foot  of  the 
Anti-Lebanon,  and  after  receiving  the  waters  of  two  other  rivers, 
traverses  the  small  marshy  Lake  Merom, — on  whose  borders  Joshua 
vanquished  the  kings  of  the  Northern  Canaanites,  (Josh,  xi.)  — and 
enters  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret.  Thence  its  waters  issue  clear  and 
transparent ;  but  they  are  soon  rendered  turbulent  by  the  falls  or 
numerous  rapids  which  interrupt  the  course  of  this  small  river. 
Americans,  who  have  descended  the  Jordan  in  copper  boats, 
(alone  capable  of  resisting  the  violent  and  multifarious  shocks 
attending  this  navigation,)  have  counted  27  of  these  falls,  all  of 
which  are  more  or  less  dangerous.  Moreover,  the  river  makes  so 
many  windings  that  the  passage  from  one  lake  to  the  other  is 
three  times  more  circuitous  by  water  than  by  land. 

The  Jordan  winds  through  a  vast  and  deep  plain,  generally 
arid  during  the  dry  season,  destitute  of  trees,  and  even  of  ver- 
dure, but  which  might  be  rendered  fertile  by  cultivation,  and  by 
conducting  into  it  the  waters  of  the  Jordan  for  purposes  of  irri- 
gation. It  is  now  insalubrious  in  summer,  on  account  of  the 
excessive  heat  which  reigns  there,  and  which  obliges  the  moun- 
tain Bedouins  to  abandon  it  as  soon  as  they  have  sown  their  fields 
or  gathered  in  their  harvests. 

Lower  yet,  at  the  bottom  of  a  ravine,  often  a  quarter  of  a 
league  in  breadth,  roll  the  rapid  and  yellow  waters  of  the  river. 
This  little  valley,  flourishing  in  perpetual  verdure,  forms  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  aridity  of  the  surrounding  plains.  The 
river  almost  disappears  from  view  beneath  a  thicket  of  willows, 
poplars,  tamarisks,  aspens,  and  gigantic  reeds,  and  the  scenery  is 
enlivened  by  the  songs  of  numerous  birds  and  the  harmonious 
murmur  of  the  waters.    The  river  flows  into  the  Dead  Sea. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  ASIA.  145 

Sect.  8.  Principait  Islands  of  Asia. — Islands  are  de- 
tached portions  of  land,  separated  from  the  neighboring  continents 
by  arms  of  the  sea  of  greater  or  less  extent,  and  generally  tend 
greatly  to  facilitate  navigation  and  commerce  between  different 
parts  of  the  world.  For  example,  it  was  by  means  of  the  chain 
of  islands  which  are  found  at  the  north-east  and  south-east  of  Asia, 
that  the  first  families  of  men,  proceeding  from  Asia  at  an  epoch 
when  the  art  of  navigation  was  almost  unknown,  became  dis- 
tributed among  the  remotest  countries  of  America  and  Oceanica, 
carrying  with  them  the  first  elements  of  civilization  and  the  arts. 
Islands  have,  in  all  ages,  rendered  very  great  services  to  man, 
and  it  is  an  inestimable  advantage  to  a  continent  to  be  surrounded 
by  them. 

Asia  possesses  a  great  number  of  islands  and  groups  of  islands ; 
but  we  shall  here  specify  only  those  whose  natural  features  pre- 
sent remarkable  points  of  interest. 

1.  In  the  Arctic  Ocean,  Asia  has  only  the  cluster  of  the 
islands  of  New  Siheria,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Lena ;  these  are 
covered  with  snow  and  ice  during  the  whole  year,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  short  summer  of  six  weeks  or  two  months,  during 
which  the  sun  never  sets.  The  vegetation  consists  only  of 
mosses  and  a  few  shrubs,  which  creep  on  the  surface  of  the  earth ; 
and  yet  considerable  forests  of  petrified  wood  are  found  buried 
beneath  the  soil,  which,  added  to  the  discovery  of  numerous  bones 
of  elephants  and  rhinoceroses,  seem  to  indicate  that  a  milder 
climate  formerly  developed  life  and  fertility  in  these  gloomy 
regions,  now  almost  always  congealed  with  frost. 

Incredible  quantities  of  fossil  hones  have  been  discovered  in 
the  marshes  of  Siberia,  on  the  sea  shore,  and  in  these  islands. 
They  here  form  in  the  earth,  in  certain  places,  actual  mounds ; 
from  which  circumstance  these  islands  have  been  surnamed  the 
islands  of  hones. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  the  body  of  an  elephant, 
in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation,  was  discovered  among  the  ice 
upon  the  banks  of  the  Lena.  It  was  difficult  to  conceive  by 
what  means  this  bulky  animal,  which  is  now  found  in  very  warm 
climates,  could  have  been  transported  into  these  re^ons.  But 
13 


k 


146  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

on  observing  that  this  elephant  was  clothed  with  a  long  mane 
and  abundant  hair,  very  similar  to  wool,  and  especially  after  dis- 
covering a  rhinoceros  in  a  similar  state  of  preservation,  likewise 
provided  with  long  hair,  men  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  these 
animals  were  designed  by  nature  to  inhabit  these  cold  countries, 
and  that  they  beheld  before  them  the  last  remains  of  a  species 
now  completely  extinct.  However  that  may  be,  the  variety  of 
elephants  of  which  the  most  remains  were  found,  and  which 
appears  to  have  principally  inhabited  the  north  of  Asia,  is  the 
mammoth.  It  was  about  15  feet  in  height ;  constituted  for  the 
temperate  or  cold  countries,  it  was  furnished,  like  the  above- 
mentioned  animals,  with  long  hair ;  a  long  mane  enveloped  its 
neck,  its  teeth  often  exceeded  12  feet  in  length,  their  ivory  equal- 
ling in  whiteness  and  delicacy  that  of  the  elephant,  but  surpass- 
ing it  in  weight  and  durability.  From  the  abundance  of  its 
bones  the  Tartars  have  conceived  the  singular  idea  that  this 
animal  lives  in  the  earth,  and  dies  as  soon  as  it  sees  the  light ; 
thus  it  seems  to  have  derived  its  name  from  the  Tartar  word 
mamma,  which  signifies  earth. 

These  islands  are  uninhabited,  except  in  summer,  when  hunt- 
ers visit  them  in  pursuit  of  white  bears  and  foxes,  or  to  collect 
on  the  shore  the  bones,  and  especially  the  ivory,  washed  up  by 
the  ocean. 

2.  In  the  Pacific  Ocean  we  encounter,  first,  the  Koorile  Islands, 
which  seem  to  be  a  continuation  of  the  mountains  of  Kamtchatka. 
These  mountainous  and  volcanic  islands,  of  a  damp  and  very 
severe  climate,  are  of  little  importance,  and  thinly  inhabited. 
The  Kooriles,  who  call  themselves  Ainos,  (men,)  and  also  inhabit 
the  great  adjoining  island,  Tarakai,  are  men  of  tall  stature, 
peaceable,  and  mild,  —  subsisting  by  hunting  and  fishing,  —  re- 
markable for  their  very  heavy,  black  beard,  and  often  cited  as 
possessing  more  hairy  bodies  than  men  of  other  races. 

3.  South  of  the  preceding  are  the  Islands  of  Japan,  which 
are  among  the  most  important  and  celebrated  in  Asia.  The  four 
principal  are  Tes'so,  Niphon',  Sikohe,  and  Kioo'-sioo'. 

The  aspect  of  the  country  is  gloomy  and  very  mountainous ; 
many  peaks  are  crowned  with  perpetual  snow;  others  contain 
terrible   volcanoes,   whose   eruptions   often  cause  earthquakes; 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  147 

elsewhere  chains  of  mountains,  apparently  struck  with  eternal 
sterility,  suggest  the  idea  of  a  desolate  and  famished  country. 
But,  on  a  nearer  approach,  one  discovers  that  the  Japanese,  with 
incredible  industry  and  pains,  cultivate  the  surface  of  the  most 
rugged  mountains,  terrace  rising  above  terrace,  even  to  their 
highest  summits ;  and  others  wrest  their  subsistence  from  dis- 
tricts the  least  susceptible  of  cultivation. 

The  climate  is  temperate,  very  hot  in  summer  and  cold  in 
winter,  although  on  the  coasts  the  heat  and  cold  are  tempered  by- 
the  vicinity  of  the  sea. 

Useful  minerals  abound  in  Japan ;  among  others,  the  best 
copper  known,  which  is  diffused  throughout  Asia,  and  even  Eu- 
rope. This  metal  seems  to  be  of  such  rare  quality  that  it  may 
be  employed  in  the  most  delicate  clockwork,  and  for  various  pur- 
poses for  which  no  other  copper  can  be  used.  Gold  is  obtained 
in  such  quantities  that  government  prohibits  its  exploration,  lest 
this  metal  should  become  too  common ;  kaolin^  of  which  the 
Japanese  manufacture  costly  vases,  and,  finally,  pit  coal,  are 
said  to  be  found  here  in  abundance. 

The  vegetation  is  fine  and  vigorous,  as  in  all  the  warm,  tem- 
perate countries  which  have  the  advantage  of  being  well  watered. 
The  principal  product  is  rice  ;  that  of  this  country  is  the  most 
esteemed  of  Eastern  Asia.  Wheat  and  other  grains  succeed,  but 
are  little  cultivated.  Besides  our  fruit  trees,  the  varnish,  cotton, 
and  mulberry  trees,  and  most  of  the  vegetables  found  in  China ; 
tea  also  is  cultivated  there,  superior  in  many  respects  to  the  best 
tea  imported  from  China.  One  particular  kind  is  said  to  be  cul- 
tivated for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  imperial  family.  The  shrubs 
form  long  avenues,  extending  even  to  the  summit  of  a  mountain, 
and  descending  on  the  other  side.  The  turf  is  carefully  removed 
from  the  surface  of  the  soil ;  not  a  plant,  nor  even  a  blade  of 
grass,  is  suffered  to  grow.  "When  the  spring,  the  season  of  the 
tea  gathering,  arrives,  this  employment  is  intrusted  to  persons 
whose  hands  are  gloved,  and  their  mouths  covered  with  a  respira- 
tor, lest  the  delicacy  of  the  princes  and  nobles  should  be  wounded 
by  the  bare  supposition  that  so  precious  an  article  had  been  sul- 
lied by  the  contact  or  breath  of  vulgar  people. 

Another  tree  worthy  of  mention,  which  flourishes  especially 


148  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATUBE. 

in  Japan,  and  also  in  the  eastern  portions  of  India,  is  the  camphor 
laurel ;  it  rises  to  a  considerable  height,  and  somewhat  resembles 
the  linden.  A  kind  of  volatile  oil,  the  camphor,  is  found  in 
abundance  in  every  part  of  this  tree.  In  order  to  extract  it,  the 
branches  and  roots,  divided  into  small  fragments,  are  placed  in 
bottles  filled  with  water,  and  surmounted  by  huge  covers.  The 
camphor,  being  moderately  heated,  volatilizes  and  forms  a  deposit 
in  the  straw,  with  which  the  interior  of  the  covers  is  lined.  In 
this  state  it  is  of  a  gray  color  and  quite  impure,  but  it  undergoes 
a  refining  process  in  Europe,  and  then  acquires  that  fine  white 
hue  by  which  it  is  commonly  known.  The  camphor  diffuses 
a  penetrating  odor,  and  is  very  much   employed   in   medicine. 

The  animals  of  Japan  are  not  numerous.  There  is,  indeed,  no 
nation  which  raises  so  few  domestic  animals,  the  land  being  en- 
tirely devoted  to  tillage.  The  princes  only  maintain  a  few 
horses,  and  almost  all  transportation  is  performed  on  the  backs 
of  men.  Oxen  and  cows  are  still  more  rare,  as  their  meat  is 
never  eaten,  nor  their  milk  and  tallow  turned  to  any  account ; 
sheep  and  goats  have  been  banished,  as  injurious  to  cultivation  ; 
the  dog,  and  also  the  cat,  the  favorite  animal  of  the  Japanese 
ladies,  are  the  most  common  quadrupeds  ;  the  nurture  of  the  silk- 
worm is  every  where  the  object  of  the  greatest  care  ;  as  for  wild 
beasts,  they  have  almost  entirely  disappeared  before  the  numer- 
ous and  active  population. 

This  population  of  the  Mongolian  race  strikingly  resembles 
the  Chinese  ;  but  the  Japanese  are  more  robust,  and  possessed 
of  more  pride  and  valor ;  they  are  also  more  cruel,  more  vin- 
dictive, and  value  life  so  lightly,  that  if  one  considers  himself 
injured,  he  stabs  himself,  and  his  adversary  must  follow  his 
example  or  be  stigmatized  as  the  most  cowardly  of  men ;  a 
magistrate  proved  guilty  is  also  sentenced  by  order  of  the  court  to 
take  his  own  life.  Their  language  and  writing  resemble  those 
of  the  Chinese ;  their  agriculture  is  very  elaborate ;  their  roads 
admirably  preserved,  and  during  the  summer  the  government 
has  them  watered,  in  order  to  lay  the  dust.  Their  fabrics  of  silk 
and  cotton,  porcelain  vases,  paper  manufactured  from  the  bark 
of  the  mulberry  tree,  and  various  works  in  lacker,  iron,  or  copper, 
hiave  attained  a  high  degree  of  perfection ;  and  many  of  these 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  ASIA. 


149 


products  are  sought  by  the  Chinese,  especially  the  porcelain  and 
the  lacker. 

Education  is  very  extensively  diffused  among  them  ;  they  pub- 
lish many  books,  and  almost  as  much  attention  is  paid  to  the 
instruction  of  the  women  as  to  that  of  the  men.  There  are  in 
Japan  many  different  religions,  the  principal  of  which  is  Booddh- 
ism.    In  the  16th  century,  Catholic  missionaries,  of  the  order 


Japanese. 

of  the  Jesuits,  obtained  very  great  advantages,  but  they  were  soon 
after  banished  and  cruelly  persecuted ;  and  from  that  time  Japan 
has  been  absolutely  closed  to  all  strangers,  missionaries  or  other- 
wise, with  the  exception  of  the  Chinese  and  Dutch,  who  once  a 
year  are  admitted  into  the  port  of  Nagasa'ki,  solely  for  com- 
mercial purposes.* 

4.  The  Loo  CJioo  Islands,  south  of  Japan,  surrounded  by  dan- 
gerous coral  reefs,  form  a  group  of  charming,  fertile,  and  verdant 
islands,  inhabited  by  a  mild  and  peaceable  people,  who,  after  trem- 


*  Americans  have,  however,  succeeded  in  gaining  admittance  to  this  coun- 
try, which  will  probably  become  to  our  nation  the  seat  of  an  important  com- 
merce. 

13* 


150  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

bling  before  their  kings  during  their  lifetime,  worship  them  as 
gods  after  death,  or  at  least  otfer  them  propitiatory  sacrifices. 
However,  if  the  people  are  subject  to  the  nobles  and  the  king, 
the  latter  is  no  less  so  to  the  monarch  of  Japan,  who  always 
maintains  a  representative  in  these  islands,  charged  especially  to 
keep  off  foreigners,  and  to  interdict,  as  in  Japan,  all  commercial 
relations  with  Europe.  Under  this  influence  the  Catholic  and 
Protestant  missionaries  have  always  found  themselves  powerless. 
Their  presence  is  tolerated,  but  the  people  are  prohibited,  under 
the  severest  penalties,  from  lending  an  ear  to  their  instructions. 

5.  In  the  Indian  Ocean  we  find  the  great  Island  of  Taiouan, 
which,  from  the  fair  aspect  of  its  vegetation  and  its  mild  climate, 
received  from  the  Europeans  the  appellation  of  Formosa,  by  which 
it  is  commonly  known.  It  has  the  same  productions  as  China ;  and 
the  abundance  of  its  grains,  fruits,  vegetables,  and  poultry  sufiice 
to  supply  the  neighboring  Cliinese  provinces.  Beyond  this  it  is 
little  known ;  we  are  only  able  to  state  that  the  inhabitants  of 
the  western  coast  are  tributaries  of  the  Chinese,  while  on  the  other 
side  of  th^  lofty  chain  of  mountains,  which  divide  the  whole 
island,  the  islanders  are  still  independent,  and  almost  wild. 

6.  The  Island  of  Hainan',  south  of  Formosa,  opposite  the 
Gulf  of  Tonquin',  is  still  less  known  than  the  preceding.  On  its 
coasts  the  pearl  fishery  is  carried  on,  and  its  forests  contain  many 
precious  woods,  such  as  the  white  sandal,  sought,  on  account 
of  its  fragrant  odor,  for  the  manufacture  of  boxes  and  various 
fancy  articles  ;  the  citron  or  candlewood,  so  called  from  its  odor 
or  appearance,  and  also  employed  in  inlaid  work  ;  tlie  eagle- 
wood,  a  variety  of  the  aloeswood,  of  wliich  we  have  already 
spoken,  is  used  both  by  perfumers  and  cabinet  makers. 

We  shall  make  no  mention  at  present  of  the  numerous  islands 
of  the  various  archipelagoes  at  the  south-east  of  Asia,  but  shall 
refer  to  them  hereafter,  in  connection  with  Oceanica,  of  which 
they  form  an  important  part. 

7.  Cey'lon  is  a  large  and  beautiful  island,  (whose  form  has 
been  compared  to  a  leg  of  bacon,)  situated  south-east  of  India, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Strait  of  Manaai-',  almost  en- 
tirely dry  at  low  tide.  Its  aspect  is  very  fine  ;  almost  impene- 
trable forests  (the  asylum  of  multitudes  of  wild  beasts)  clothe 


THE  CONTINENT   OP  ASIA. 


151 


the  sides  of  the  mountains,  whose  highest  summit  is  Adam's  Peak, 
surmounting  a  little  plateau,  on  which  may  be  seen  the  impres- 
sion of  a  gigantic  foot,  which  is,  according  to  Europeans,  that  of 
Adam,  and  according  to  the  natives,  that  of  their  god  Booddha. 

The  climate  is  more  temperate  than  that  of  India,  on  account 
of  the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  except  in  the  interior,  where  the  heat 
is  often  stifling  and  unhealthy.  A  more  exuberant  vegetation 
than  that  of  Ceylon  can  scarcely  be  found ;  all  the  fruits  of  India 
there  grow  in  abundance  and  to  perfection ;  pineapples,  melons, 


Pineapple. 

and  oranges  grow  in  the  woods,  without  cultivation.  The  most 
"noted  product  of  the  Island  of  Ceylon  is  the  cinnamon.  This  is 
the  second  bark  of  the  cinnamon  laurel,  which  grows  to  a  height 
of  25  or  30  feet,  but  which  is  principally  cultivated  in  bushes 
at  the  south-east  side  of  the  island.  The  cinnamon  is  collected 
from  the  three-year-old  boughs.  They  are  severed  by  means  of 
"a  pruning  knife ;  the  bark  is  then  slit  lengthwise  and  crosswise, 
and  carefully  removed.     The  gathering  is  generally  made  during 


152  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

the  rainy  season,  because  the  bark  is  then  more  easily  detached. 
The  strips  of  bark  are  bound  together  in  packages,  and  during  a 
sHght  process  of  fermentation,  which  ensues,  the  outer  covering 
becomes  loosened,  and  may  afterwai'ds  be  removed  with  the 
greatest  facility.  The  strips  of  bark  are  then  fitted  one  within 
another,  giving  them  the  form  of  hollow  tubes,  in  which  they  are 
exported.  The  cinnamon  has  an  aromatic,  sweet,  and  pungent 
taste,  and  a  very  agreeable  odor.  It  is  used  in  medicine,  and 
more  especially  in  the  seasoning  of  dishes. 

Ceylon  produces  gigantic  cocoa  nut  trees,  of  which  the  English 
have  begun  to  make  regular  plantations,  both  in  consideration  of 
the  oil,  which  is  extracted  by  grinding  the  nut,  and  for  the  sake 
of  the  arrack,  a  kind  of  brandy,  which  is  procured  by  the  distilla- 
tion of  the  agreeable  juice,  which  exudes  in  abundance  from  its 
branches.  Coffee  plantations  of  considerable  extent  are  also 
established  there. 

The  talipot  palm  is  also  found  in  Ceylon  in  the  interior  of  the 
forests  of  the  island.  This  is  a  gigantic  tree,  which  rises  to  a 
height  of  100  and  even  200  feet.  It  is  said  to  flower  but  once 
in  its  old  age ;  then,  as  soon  as  its  fruits  have  ripened,  it  withers 
and  dies.  From  its  marrow  is  extracted  the  sago,  a  light  sub- 
stance employed  in  cookery ;  but  the  most  useful  part  of  the  tali- 
pot is  its  enormous  leaves,  in  the  form  of  a  fan,  a  single  one  of 
which  is  sufficient  to  protect  ten  or  twelve  persons  from  the  sun 
or  rain.  Many  an  overseer,  while  clearing  the  lands  destined  for 
a  plantation,  has  had  no  other  shelter,  even  in  the  rainy  season, 
than  one  of  these  gigantic  leaves,  thrown  transversely,  in  the  form 
of  a  tent,  over  a  stout  stick,  attached  at  the  two  ends  to  two 
stakes  planted  in  the  earth.  These  sajne  leaves  dried,  and  suit- 
ably prepared,  are  used  instead  of  paper  for  the  drawing  up  of 
public  acts  and  important  documents,  being  peculiarly  adapted  to 
these  purposes,  as  they  possess  the  property  of  repelling  insects. 
These  leaves,  after  being  dipped  in  boiling  water,  are  polished 
with  hard  wood,  and  when  dry  are  cut  in  strips  six  inches  in 
width.  On  these  the  writer  traces  his  letters  or  figures  with  a 
sharp  steel  instrument,  then  passes  over  the  surface  of  the  leaf  an 
oily,  colored  liquid,  which  leaves  no  traces  except  in  the  charac- 
ters engraved  by  the  pencil,  and  renders  them  perfectly  legible. 


THE   CONTINENT   OP   ASIA. 


153 


Sucli  manuscripts  are  much  more  durable  than  our  papers. 
Some  of  them  have  been  found  in  the  pagodas  in  India,  which 
date  back,  it  is  said,  more  than  2000  years. 

But  the  most  curious  plant  which  grows  in  Ceylon  is  the  ne- 
penthes, whose  leaves  terminate  in  spiral  fibres  bearing  a  mem- 
branous urn,  3  or  4  inches  in  length,  filled  with  a  honeyed  liquid, 
rarely  potable,  (notwithstanding  the  statements  of  travellers,)  on 
account  of  the  swarms  of  little  insects,  which,  allured  by  the  odor, 
become  drowned,  or  deposit  their  eggs  in  it. 

Among  its  animals,  Ceylon  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  its  ele- 
phants, the  strongest,  the  most  intelligent,  and  the  most  docile  in 
the  world ;  the  islanders  are  so  persuaded  of  their  superiority,  that 
they  affirm  that  those  of  other  countries  salute  them  when  they 


Spectacle  Snake. 


154  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

meet.  Unfortunately,  in  the  heart  of  this  rich  and  beautiful  island 
wild  beasts  are  very  numerous — leopards,  jackals,  wild  boars,  &c. ; 
crocodiles  infest  the  rivers,  and  serpents  are  common ;  among  the 
latter,  the  spectacle  snake,  so  called  from  a  design  in  the  form  of 
spectacles  that  this  reptile  has  on  a  membrane,  which,  situated 
upon  its  head,  dilates  and  erects  itself  like  a  kind  of  cowl,  when  it 
is  enraged  and  prepares  to  attack  its  enemy.  This  inflation  of 
the  membrane  may  serve  as  a  precious  warning  to  put  one's  self 
immediately  out  of  the  animal's  reach.  These  monsters,  strange 
to  relate,  have  a  great  passion  for  music ;  and  the  Indian  jugglers 
avail  themselves  of  this  circumstance  to  capture  them,  after  which, 
by  means  of  certain  plants  known  only  to  them,  they  have  the  art 
of  preserving  themselves  completely  from  the  effects  of  the  venom 
of  these  terrible  reptiles.  As  in  India,  the  buffalo  is  the  principal 
domestic  animal.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  pearl  oyster 
fishery,  which  is  carried  on  in  the  Strait  of  Manaar,  and  the  pro- 
duct of  which  yearly  diminishes. 

The  population,  of  the  Hindoo  race  and  brown  complexion,  is 
indolent,  superstitious,  and  generally  devoted  to  the  worship  of 
the  god  Booddha.  However,  it  is  beginning  to  be  sensibly  influ- 
enced by  the  truths  of  the  gospel ;  tlie  Catholic  missions,  which 
are  now  of  long  standing,  comprise  quite  a  large  number  of  adher- 
ents, and  the  Protestant  missions,  with  their  numerous  and  flour- 
ishing schools,  have  recently  obtained  very  great  success. 

8.  The  Mai' dives  form,  south-west  of  India,  an  immense  archi- 
pelago of  islands,  islets,  and  rocks,  as  many  as  12,000  in  number, 
and  so  surrounded  by  reefs  of  coral  that  large  vessels  cannot  ap- 
proach .them.  Only  40  or  50  of  these  islands  are  cultivated, 
producing  abundance  of  dates,  bananae,  and  other  fruits  of  India. 
Here  also  the  cocoa  nut  tree  renders  inestimable  services  to  the 
islanders.  Its  leaves  afford  them  a  pleasant  shade,  and  when  dry 
are  used  for  thatching  their  houses  ;  its  trunk  serves  as  pillars  to 
sustain  their  roofs,  or  as  masts  for  their  boats.  Of  the  matting 
in  which  its  fruits  are  enveloped  ropes  are  manufactured,  and  a 
soft  down  is  furnished  for  their  beds ;  at  the  root  of  the  palm  is 
found  a  fibrous  substance,  of  wliich  garments  are  made.  Its  nut 
may  easily  be  converted  into  a  graceful  cup ;  the  liquid  which  it 
contains  changes  successively,  according  to  the  age  of  the  fruit. 


THE   CONTINENT  OP  ASIA.  155 

from  the  fresh  insipidity  of  fountain  water  to  that  of  the  sweetest 
savor ;  its  meat  furnishes  an  agreeable  and  nourishing  aliment, 
also  an  oil  which  serves  to  moisten  the  food  of  the  Maldives,  and 
to  illuminate  their  dwellings ;  there  is  no  more  delicious  or  re- 
freshing beverage  than  the  liquor,  which  is  extracted  by  incision 
from  the  fruit-bearinj]j  branches. 


Cocoa  Nut  Palm. 


The  only  domestic  animal  which  is  common  in  these  poor  islets 
is  the  kid  of  India,  a  charming  little  gazelle,  which  may  be  seen 
skipping  from  place  to  place,  wherever  aromatic  plants  are  to  be 
found;  its  milk  is  very  savory,  and  its  flesh  is  quite  delicate. 


156  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

The  principal  sustenance  of  this  country  is  derived  from  the 
sea.  The  fish  are  of  extraordinary  abundance ;  they  move  in 
shoals  along  the  shores,  penetrate  into  the  canals,  and  sport  in  all 
the  small  basins. 

The  population,  of  Arabic  origin,  but  somewhat  mixed  with  the 
Hindoo  race,  is  all  Mahometan,  and  carries  on  quite  an  active 
commerce  with  India. 

9.  The  Lac'cadives,  which  may  be  considered  a  continuation  of 
the  preceding,  are  still  smaller,  and  less  productive.  The  only 
curious  product  wliich  they  export  (as  likewise  the  Maldives)  are 
cowries — small  shells,  which  serve  for  money  of  trifling  value,  in 
the  south  of  Asia,  and  in  almost  aU  Africa.  In  Bengal  about  a 
thousand  of  these  shells  are  equivalent  to  a  franc ;  in  Africa  they 
are  worth  more  than  double  that  amount.  Whole  ships  are  load- 
ed with  them  for  this  latter  continent,  and  they  are  the  object 
of  quite  an  extensive  commerce. 

10.  In  the  Mediterranean,  Asia  possesses  only  islands  which, 
notwithstanding  their  celebrity,  have  fallen  into  decay.  Thus 
Cyprus,  although  flourishing  in  the  middle  ages,  is  now  desolate, 
and  almost  uncultivated.  Its  only  important  production  is  its 
famous  Cyprus  wines,  which  when  old  become  as  thick  as  sirup. 
Immediately  after  the  vintage  they  are  poured  into  leather  bottles 
besmeared  with  pitch ;  this  usually  gives  them  a  very  disagree- 
able odor,  which  they  do  not  lose  until  after  many  years.  The 
population  of  this  island  and  the  following  are  partly  Greek  and 
Cliristian,  partly  Turkish  and  Mahometan,  and  almost  univer- 
sally miserable. 

11.  Rhodes,  south-west  of  Anatolia,  is  a  large  and  beautiful 
island,  whose  Greek  name,  which  signifies  rose,  recalls  to  mind  its 
magnificent  valleys,  in  which  roses  and  myrtles  grow  spontane- 
ously, reaching  even  to  the  sea  shore.  It  is  famed  for  its  wines, 
and  especially  for  its  building  wood,  and  timber  yards,  the  most 
extensive  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  It  was  formerly  celebrated  for 
its  brazen  Colossus,  ranked  of  old  among  the  seven  wonders  of  the 
world,  and  which,  erected  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbor,  was  high 
enough  for  vessels  to  pass  between  its  legs. 

12.  The  Asiatic  Spor'ades,  small  islands  scattered  along  the 
western  coast  of  Anatolia,  were  formerly  excessively  rich  and 


THE   CONTINENT   OF   ASIA.  157 

flourishing,  but  they  have  suffered  much  from  the  tyranny  of  the 
Turks.  The  principal  are  Samos,  which  traffics  in  its  muscat 
wines,  and  the  best  ohve  oil  of  these  countries.  Scio,  or  Chios, 
whose  population,  almost  all  Greek,  was  reduced  from  130,000  to 
20,000  persons  by  the  terrible  massacres  of  the  Turks  in  1822 ; 
thence  is  obtained  almost  all  the  mastic,  which  the  women  of  the 
East  are  accustomed  to  chew  in  order  to  perfume  their  breath 
and  whiten  their  teeth ;  the  mastic  is  a  kind  of  gum  which  exudes 
from  the  trunk  of  a  tree  called  lentisk ;  but  the  greater  part 
of  it  is  monopolized  by  the  court  of  the  great  sultan.  Metelin, 
formerly  celebrated  under  the  name  of  Lesbos,  exports  oils,  the 
best  wines  of  these  countries,  and  many  southern  fruits.  This 
island,  as  likewise  all  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  furnishes  much 
valonea,  a  large  species  of  acorn,  which  is  employed  in  tanning 
operations,  and  has  brought  extremely  high  prices  within  a  few 
years.  Although  it  is  our  design  to  cite  here  only  the  principal 
of  these  islands,  we  must  not  except  the  very  small  island  oi  Pat- 
mos,  where  the  apostle  St.  Jolm  was  exiled,  and  where  he  had  the 
different  visions  which  he  relates  in  the  Book  of  Revelation.  It 
is  situated  a  little  south  of  Samos. 
14 


CHAPTER  VII. 
THE    CONTINENT    OF   AFRICA. 

If  you  have  been  vividly  impressed  by  the  wonders  of  nature 
as  exemplified  in  Asia,  they  will  strike  you  no  less  forcibly  in  the 
study  of  the  continent  to  w^hich  your  attention  is  now  directed. 
Africa  is,  in  fact,  the  country  of  mystery  and  novelty.  .  It  is 
likewise  the  only  continent  where  are  yet  to  be  found  immense 
and  unknown  regions,  which  have  never  been  penetrated  by 
any  enlightened  traveller.  Nowhere  does  Nature  present  more 
astonishing  or  more  striking  contrasts ;  a  vegetation  of  exuberant 
richness,  and  forests  of  colossal  plants,  border  upon  the  most 
vast  and  dismal  deserts  ;  while  gigantic  animals,  in  prodigious 
numbers,  congregate  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  hu- 
man race,  who,  feeble  and  impotent,  are  reduced  to  tremble  and 
cringe  before  these  wild  inhabitants  of  the  desert.  Climate,  vege- 
tables, animals,  and  populations  will  there  furnish  us  with  new 
and  sometimes  extraordinary  phenomena,  such  as  Asia  has  not 
exhibited  to  our  view,  and  which  will  aiford  us  additional  reason 
to  admire  the  infinite  variety  which  the  Creator  has  established 
among  all  his  works. 

Section  1.  Form  and  Boundaries  of  Africa. — Africa, 
in  its  form,  is  merely  a  peninsula  of  Asia,  its  size  alone  entitling  it 
to  rank  among  the  continents.  For  a  continent,  truly  defined,  is  a 
great  tract  of  land,  which,  like  an  organized  body,  is  provided  with 
peninsulas,  serving  it  in  the  place  of  members,  and  which  enable 
it  in  a  manner  to  place  itself  in  communication  with  the  neighbor- 
ing continents.  Thus  you  see  Asia  communicating  with  America 
through  Kamtchatka,  with  Oceanica  through  Indo  China,  with 
Africa  through  Arabia,  and  with  the  south  of  Europe  through 
Anatolia.     Of  these  advantages  Africa  is  completely  destitute ;  it 

(158) 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  159 

has  no  peninsulas,  nor  consequently  any  of  those  deep  gulfs  by 
which  navigation  arid  commerce  penetrate  into  the  heart  of  a 
continent. 

Nor  is  this  circumstance  of  trifling  importance.  From  the 
solid  and  massive  form  of  Africa  result  very  grievous  conse- 
quences. Nothing  so  draws  men  together,  nothing  so  facilitates 
commerce  and  civilization,  as  the  neighborhood  of  the  sea.  God 
has,  you  are  aware,  distributed  his  gifts  among  men  in  an  infi- 
nitely varied  manner.  One  country  possesses  cotton,  and  does 
not  produce  hemp  or  flax  ;  another  has  gold,  and  lacks  pit  coal ; 
another  furnishes  coffee,  cocoa,  or  spices,  and  is  compelled  to 
seek  elsewhere  both  wheat  and  iron.  Thus,  in  order  that  bless- 
ings may  be  dispensed  among  all  nations,  each  must  procure 
from  among  others  the  productions  which  it  lacks,  in  exchange 
for  those  of  which  it  enjoys  a  superabundance.  But  if  these  com- 
modities, oftentimes  very  bulky,  were  obliged  to  be  conveyed  by 
land  across  countries  which  are  destitute  of  good  roads,  these 
transportations  would  be  exceedingly  difficult,  lengthy,  and  ex- 
pensive, and  even  for  certain  materials  impossible,  whilst  by  sea 
they  would  be  rendered  far  more  practicable. 

If,  therefore,  numerous  peninsulas  and  gulfs  are  the  means  of 
introducing  the  waters  of  the  sea  even  into  the  interior  of  a  con- 
tinent, as  is  the  case  in  Europe  and  America,  for  example,  com- 
munications between  the  inhabitants  are  thus  very  much  faciHtated ; 
they  are  enabled  to  exchange  their  different  productions ;  they 
feel  their  dependence  upon  each  other,  friendly  relations  are  es- 
tablished among  them,  and  they  no  longer  seek  to  destroy  each 
other,  but  to  trade  peaceably.  Thus  are  blessings  and  riches 
diffused  among  all ;  civilization  develops  among  men,  the  man- 
ners acquire  polish,  the  arts  of  peace  create  miracles  of  industry, 
and  man  actually  rules  over  all  the  creation,  of  which  his  Maker 
decreed  him  king. 

But  Africa,  like  a  trunk  Avithout  branches,  possesses  none  of 
these  precious  advantages.  Seas  indeed  encompass  it,  but  with 
the  exception  of  the  Mediterranean,  they  are  tempestuous  and  for- 
midable ;  it  has  none  of  those  internal  seas,  or  of  those  well-sheltered 
gulfs,  which  elsewhere  early  invited  man  to  navigation,  and  facili- 
tated his  first  nautical  essays.     The  African  populations  (those 


160  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

of  the  northern  coast  excepted)  have  always  been  confined  within 
narrow  limits,  almost  without  relations  with  each  other,  waging 
incessant  and  bloody  wars,  subjecting  each  other  to  slavery,  guilty 
even  of  cannibalism,  the  prey  often  of  famine,  poverty,  and  dis- 
tress, and  hardly  capable  in  certain  places  of  defending  themselves 
against  the  lions  or  other  wild  beasts.  Doubtless,  in  the  mai'ch  of 
progress,  Christianity  will  rescue  these  colonies  from  their  brutal- 
ity and  degradation,  and  introduce  civilization  among  them.  Al- 
ready have  noble  efforts  been  made  for  this  end ;  already  have 
encouraging  successes  been  obtained,  as  we  shall  soon  perceive ; 
but  nevertheless,  in  consideration  of  the  absence  of  peninsulas 
and  gulfs  which  characterizes  Africa,  we  must  always  expect  to 
find  the  welfare  and  civilization  of  its  inhabitants  seriously  affect- 
ed by  this  circumstance. 

Having  discussed  the  form  of  Africa,  we  will  describe  its 
boundaries,  and  then  pass  immediately  to  more  important  subjects. 
It  is  bounded  north  by  the  Mediterranean,  west  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  east  by  the  Indian  Ocean  and  Red  Sea ;  the  isthmus  of 
Suez  unites  it  to  Asia. 

Sect.  2.  Mountains  of  Africa.  —  In  the  absence  of  all 
peninsulas  worthy  of  our  attention,  we  will  enter  at  once  upon  the 
study  of  the  plateaus  and  low  plains  of  Africa ;  but  we  must  first 
say  a  few  words  in  reference  to  the  mountains  which  circumscribe 
and  constitute  the  high  country.  These  chains,  of  considerable 
extent,  are  few  in  number,  but  they  are  peopled  by  great  numbers 
of  extremely  diversified  and  curious  beings. 

1.  NiEuwvELD  Mountains.  —  The  chain  which  is  desig- 
nated by  this  general  name  extends  from  east  to  west  at  a  certain 
distance  from  the  southern  coast,  north  of  the  famous  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  and  Cape  Agulhas,  which  terminate  the  continent  at 
the  south  and  south-west.  Its  peaks  are  remarkable  for  their 
abrupt  and  perpendicular  declivities,  and  their  table-shaped  sum- 
mits. These  mountains  are  generally  arid  and  unwooded,  con- 
taining only  feeble  springs,  rarely  an  actual  stream;  and  the 
beings  which  there  find  subsistence  are  those  which  fear  not  arid 
and  abandoned  places. 

Such  are  the  termites,  insects  whose  industrious  habits  are  so 
similar  to  those  of  ants,  that  they  are  generally,  although  incorrectly, 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AFRICA.  161 

• 

denominated  white  ants.  They  construct  themselves  dwellings 
of  12,  15,  and  even  20  feet  in  height — enormous  dimensions, 
when  compared  with  the  size  of  these  insects ;  greater,  indeed,  in 
proportion,  than  a  monument  would  be  to  us ;  eleven  times  the 
height  of  the  pyramids  of  Egypt.  These  huts,  in  the  form  of 
towers,  domes,  or  cones,  are  composed  wholly  of  a  species  of  clay, 
which,  moulded  with  what  may  be  termed  the  saliva  of  the  ter- 
mites, acquires  an  extraordinary  durability.  It  would  be  easier  to 
demolish  one  of  these  columns  by  tearing  it  from  its  foundations, 
than  to  break  it  through  the  middle  ;  men,  and  even  large  animals, 
may  mount  without  crushing  them ;  and  when  they  are  collected 
in  large  numbers,  on  an  even  surface,  they  may  be  mistaken  at  a 
distance  for  the  huts  of  a  village  of  natives. 

The  interior  of  these  habitations  is  no  less  remarkable  than  the 
exterior.  In  the  centre  is  a  kind  of  apartment,  in  which,  sur- 
rounded by  attendants,  but  immured  and  never  permitted  egress, 
are  the  king  and  queen,  or  rather  the  father  and  mother ;  the  latter, 
at  a  certain  time,  acquires  proportionally  huge  dimensions,  and 
lays,  it  is  said,  as  many  as  80,000  eggs  in  one  day.  Around  the 
royal  cell  are  the  brooding  places  or  nurseries,  where  the  eggs  are 
deposited,  and  where  the  young  larva?  are  reared.  Beyond  are 
vast  storehouses  of  provision,  by  means  of  which  the  larvse,  after 
a  first  transformation,  increase  in  size,  and  become  either  work- 
men, which,  in  the  interval  of  forming  perfect  insects  and  develop- 
ing wings  for  flight,  are  charged  with  all  the  constructions  of  the 
colony  ;  or  soldiers,  neutral  insects,  destitute  of  wings,  a  hundred 
times  less  numerous  than  the  workmen,  and  which,  armed  with 
mandibles  (a  species  of  jaws)  capable  of  piercing  their  enemies, 
and  with  formidable  pincers,  are  foremost  in  attacking  whatever 
approaches  to  make  a  breach  in  the  common  habitation.  Spacious 
and  vaulted  galleries  connect  together  every  part  of  the  edifice, 
and  often  extend  beyond  it ;  for  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the 
termites  never  labor  in  the  open  air,  but  always  under  subterra- 
nean galleries  of  greater  or  less  extent. 

Besides  the  warlike  termites  are  also  distinguished  the  wander- 
ing termites,  and  especially  the  destructive  termites,  the  most  mis- 
chievous of  all ;  they  insert  themselves  underneath  the  founda- 
tions of  a  dwelling  house,  gnaw  and  devour  the  piles,  the  beams, 
14* 


1^62  THE  GEOGRAPHY   OF  NATURE. 

the  planks,  and  the  furniture,  operating  always  in  the  inside,  and 
without  any  external  appearance,  until  the  piece  of  wood,  com- 
pletely excavated,  yields  and  breaks.  Thus  an  edifice  sometimes 
falls  suddenly,  without  its  having  been  possible  to  suspect  the  dan- 
ger. In  a  single  season  a  house  of  European  construction  may 
be  entirely  demolished,  or  a  negro  village  may  totally  disappear. 
These  insects  have  been  known  in  a  single  night  to  penetrate 
through  the  leg  of  a  table,  traverse  it  from  bottom  to  top,  reach  a 
trunk  placed  upon  it,  and  entirely  consume  the  papers,  pencils, 
&c.,  which  it  contained. 

However,  these  dangerous  animals  serve,  in  the  hot  countries, 
to  purify  the  soil  from  the  matter,  which,  decomposing  in  it,  would 
engender  miasm.  The  Africans  broil  them  on  the  fire,  and  re- 
gard them  as  a  delicious  dish ;  they  constitute  the  principal 
food  of  the  quadrupeds  of  the  order  edentata,  and  particularly 
of  pangolins. 

The  manidce,  or  pangolins,  are  really  mammals ;  but  at  first 


Pangolin, 

approach  they  would  be  taken  for  lizards,  on  account  of  the  tri- 
angular and  sharp  scales  with  which  their  tail  and  body  are 
entirely  covered.  These  animals,  naturally  mild  and  timid,  can 
only  escape  from  their  enemies  by  rolling  themselves  up  in  balls, 
which  position  elevates  the  points  of  their  scales,  and  renders  them 
intangible  even  to  the  most  formidable  animals,  such  as  the  tiger 
or  the  leopard.  But  this  armor  does  not  prevent  the  negroes 
from  killing  the  pangolins  with  clubs ;  for  they  find  its  flesh  white 
and  delicate.  This  inoffensive  quadruped,  from  one  foot  to  one 
and  a  half  in  length,  only  issues  from  its  burrow  at  nightflill,  in 
order  to  seek  its  food,  consisting  of  ants  or  termites.     It  makes  a 


THE   CONTINENT   OF   AFRICA. 


163 


hole  In  the  ant  hill  with  its  claws ;  then,  introducing  into  the  midst 
of  the  terrified  insects  its  glutinous  tongue,  like  an  enormous 
earth  worm,  suddenly  withdraws  it,  and  swallows  the  ants  which 
adhere  to  it. 

2.  LuPATA  Mountains.  —  Other  chains  of  mountains,  very 
imperfectly  known  by  the  vague  name  of  Lupata,  (or  thorn  of  the 
world,)  extend  north-east  of  the  preceding,  even  to  the  borders  of 
the  Red  Sea.  We  shall  only  have  it  in  our  power  to  speak  of 
the  southern  portion,  the  Maloutis. 

1.  The  Blue  Mountains  derive  their  name  of  Maloutis  from  a 
word  which  signifies  peaks  ;  and  in  truth  this  is  their  prevalent 
form,  while  the  other  mountains  of  Southern  Africa  generally 
assume  the  flat  or  table  shape.  Quite  the  reverse  of  the  Nieu- 
wveld  range,  these  mountains  are  well  wooded;   they  are  wa- 


Antelopes. 


tered  by  abundant  rains,  serving  to  supply  a  considerable  number 

which  descend  from  them  at  the  east 


of  streams  and  great  rivers 


164  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

and  west,  especially  in  the  latter  direction.  The  high  grass 
of  their  valleys  sustains  a  multitude  of  wild  animals  of  every 
kind. 

The  most  interesting  of  these  animals  are  the  antelopes  —  a  race 
particularly  developed  in  Africa,  since  of  the  80  species  which 
constitute  it,  60  are  found  in  this  continent  alone.  They  are 
quadrupeds  admirably  formed  for  running,  of  a  graceful  figure, 
and  with  a  head  usually  decorated  with  hollow  and  fluted  horns ; 
they  are  mild  and  sociable,  with  large  and  beautiful  eyes,  and  an 
acute  sense  of  hearing ;  they  are  gifted  with  the  greatest  light- 
ness of  foot,  and  can  perform  incredible  leaps.  Some,  such  as 
the  elk  of  the  cape,  whose  flesh  is  very  much  in  demand,  attain 
the  size  of  a  horse ;  they  live  in  large  companies,  and  often  defy 
the  pursuit  of  a  horseman. 

But  the  mild  and  peaceable  antelopes  are  exposed  to  the 
attacks  of  a  great  number  of  enemies.  They  are,  together  with 
the  monkeys,  the  habitual  prey  of  panthers,  those  terrible  tawny 
beasts,  spotted  with  black,  which,  smaller  than  the  leopard,  dis- 
play no  less  agility  than  the  latter  in  seizing  their  victims,  either 


Panther. 

by  climbing  trees  or  otherwise.  These  mountains  also  produce 
many  other  carnivorous  animals,  such  as  wild  cats  and  dogs,  both 
great  destroyei'S  of  game,  jackals,  whose  orange-colored  fur,  bor- 
dering on  red,  is  very  much  prized ;  and  the  spotted  hyena, 
very  similar  to  the  striped  hyena  of  Asia,  but  much  more  fero- 
cious J  for  the  continual  wars  which  have  occurred  in  Africa  have 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  165 

rendered  it  a  man-eater^  and  it  often  enters  the  precincts  of 
houses  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off  children. 

However,  the  most  sanguinary  beings  to  whom  the  Maloutis 
have  served  for  a  retreat  are  colonies  of  wild  cannibals,  known 
by  the  name  of  Marimos.  A  French  missionary,  M.  Arbousset, 
who,  a  few  years  ago,  visited  and  preached  the  gospel  to  them, 
states  that  it  was  famine  which  first  goaded  these  unfortunate 
tribes  to  cannibalism.  But  that  which  was  originally  only  a  kind 
of  fatal  necessity  has  since  become  a  passion.  They  have  ac- 
quired a  taste  for  these  odious  repasts,  and  a  thirst  for  human 
blood.  Descending  suddenly  from  the  tops  of  their  mountains 
upon  the  travellers  whom  they  see  afar  off  in  the  plain,  they  seize 
and  carry  them  away,  or,  killing  and  cutting  them  in  pieces  on 
the  spot,  remove  them  in  fragments.  After  having  devoured 
their  flesh,  they  melt  the  fat,  and  drink  or  anoint  their  hair  with 
it.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that,  since  the  missionary  wrote  these  ac- 
counts, the  progress  of  civilization  and  the  gospel  have  put  an 
end  to  these  atrocities. 

2.  With  regard  to  the  long  chain  of  the  Lupata  Mountains,  we 
only  know  that  the  forests  at  the  foot  of  these  mountains  are  ten- 
anted by  immense  multitudes  of  wild  beasts,  and  especially  by 
rhinoceroses  and  elephants.  The  rhinoceros  of  Africa  differs 
but  little  from  that  of  Asia,  except  in  this  respect,  that  it  has 
generally  two  horns,  the  principal  of  which  is  sometimes  three  feet 
long.  Some  of  these  animals  are  black,  and  some  white,  and 
the  latter  are  remarkable  for  the  Icngtli  of  their  horns.  These 
animals  are  fond  of  retreating  into  the  jiaifflcs,  or  almost  impene- 
trable thickets,  obstructed  by  acacias  and  other  thorny  shrubs, 
among  which  they  occasionally  track  paths ;  but  unfortunate  is 
the  traveller  who  encounters  them  face  to  face,  as  he  runs  much 
risk  of  being  trampled  pitilessly  under  foot.  The  natives  dig 
pits  in  these  paths,  which  they  carefully  cover  with  branches 
and  earth,  for  the  purpose  of  entrapping  the  rhinoceros,  whose 
flesh  is  considered  equal  to  that  of  the  ox. 

Similar  snares  are  laid  for  the  elephants,  whose  precious  ivory 
is  always,  in  these  regions,  the  object  of  a  very  extensive  com- 
merce. The  elephant  of  Africa  differs  in  certain  points  from 
that  of  Asia:   it  has    much  larger   ears,  a  convex   instead  of 


166 


THE  GEOGRAPHY   OF  NATURE. 


concave  forehead,  and  only  3  toes  instead  of  4,  in  the  hind  feet ; 
the  females  have  also  tusks,  which  is  not  the.  case  in  India,  and 
these  tusks  are  generally  long  and  strong,  frequently  from  6  to 
8  and  9  feet  in  length,  weighing  from  60  to  100  pounds,  and 
valued  in  Europe  at  as  much  as  40  dollars.  The  elephants  of 
Africa  are  extremely  malicious,  and  will  not  suffer  themselves  to 
be  tamed,  like  those  of  Asia. 

3.  Mountains  of  the  Moon.  —  The  plateau  of  Upper 
Africa  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  ^fountains  of  the  Moon, 
concerning  whichj^from  time  immemorial,  all  kinds  of  fabulous 
tales  have  been  related.  But  no  European  or  American  travel- 
ler having  visited  them,  we  must  abstain  here  from  entering  into 
details  which  offer  us  no  guarantee  of  their  authenticity. 

4.  The  Congo  Mountains.  —  These  mountains,  which  form 
the  western  border  of  the  plateau,  are  also  very  little  known ;  they 
contain,  however,  a  multitude  of  leopards,  panthers,  and  other 
ferocious  animals  ;  and  there  also  are  encountered  the  two  ani- 
mals whose  intelligence  bears  the  nearest  approach  to  that  of  man 


Chimpanzee. 


— the  grayjacco,  a  parrot  celebrated  for  the  facility  with  which  it 
learns  to  speak,  and  the  chimpanzee,  which  is  the  monkey,  the 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  167 

most  remarkable  for  its  resemblance  to  the  human  race,  although 
a  wide  chasm  intervenes  between  the  development  of  the  intellect- 
ual faculties  appertaining  to  this  animal  and  those  with  which 
the  lord  of  creation  is  endowed. 

This  monkey  attains,  according  to  the  accounts  of  travellers,  a 
stature  of  five  feet.  Its  body,  which  has  no  tail,  is  covered  with 
long,  black,  and  coarse  hair,  the  face,  ears,  and  inside  of  the  hands 
alone  being  destitute  of  it.  Its  ears  are  very  large,  and  its  arms, 
longer  than  those  of  man,  reach  to  the  knees.  Supported  on  a 
stick,  the  chimpanzee  can  walk  for  some  distance  upright ;  but  its 
hands  differ  sensibly  from  ours,  and  always  recall  the  traits  of  a 
climbing  animal.  It  sleeps  on  trees,  and  constructs  for  itself  a 
habitation,  as  a  shelter  from  sun  and  rain.  When  the  negroes 
build  a  fire  in  the  forests,  the  chimpanzees  approach,  to  seat  and 
warm  themselves  around  it,  but  have  not  sense  enough  to  pre- 
serve the  flame,  by  going  in  search  of  wood  and  replenishing  it 
They  go  in  companies,  and  sometimes  kill  negroes  in  isolated 
places.  The  full-grown  chimpanzees  cannot  be  caught  alive,  be- 
cause they  are  so  strong  that  ten  men  (declares  a  traveller)  are 
not  sufficient  to  take  a  single  one  of  them.  They  can  only  be 
taken  when  young,  in  which  case  they  are  easily  tamed,  and 
become  very  docile.  They  have  been  seen  to  seat  themselves  at 
table,  flourish  their  napkin,  make  use  of  the  spoon  and  fork,  pour 
out  for  themselves,  and  even  strike  their  glasses,  when  invited  to 
drink. 

5.  The  Kong  Mountains.  —  This  chain  is  situated  north 
of  the  vast  gulf  which  the  Atlantic  forms  towards  the  middle  of 
the  western  coast  of  Africa,  and  which  is  known  by  the  name  of 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  These  mountains,  which  extend  first  from 
east  to  west,  and  afterwards  to  the  northward,  are  celebrated  for 
their  gold,  which  is  procured  principally  by  the  washing  of  the 
sands,  and  which,  under  the  name  of  tihhar,  (gold  dust,)  is  current 
every  where  in  Africa  as  money.  It  is  estimated  by  weight,  and 
every  negro  of  these  countries  habitually  carries  about  him  a 
small  pair  of  scales  for  this  purpose. 

The  Mountains  of  Kong  are  generally  clothed  with  a  rich  and 
abundant  vegetation  ;  but  the  most  remarkable  tree  which  charac- 
terizes them  is  the  shea  or  hutter  tree,  (micadamia.)     The  palm 


k 


168  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

tree,  so  abundant  on  the  coasts,  becomes  more  and  more  rare  m 
proportion  as  we  ascend  the  mountains,  and  the  oil  can  only  be 
procured  in  very  small  quantities  ;  but  an  ever-bountiful  Provi- 
dence supplies  the  deficiency  by  the  micadamia.  The  butter  tree 
bears  some  resemblance  to  the  oak,  and  the  nut  which  it  produces 
is  enveloped  in  a  pulp,  or  savory  flesh ;  the  kernel  contained  in 
the  nut  is  about  the  size  of  a  chestnut ;  it  is  dried  in  the  sun, 
then  pounded  and  boiled  in  water ;  the  fat  portion  detaches  itself 
and  floats  on  the  surface,  where,  on  becoming  cool,  it  hardens ;  it 
is  then  collected,  and  without  further  preparation  is  eaten  with 
bread.  This  oil  is  of  great  repute,  having  a  more  agi-eeable  taste 
than  milk  butter,  and  possessing  also  the  capability  of  being  pre- 
served a  long  time  without  salt  —  no  slight  advantage  in  a  country 
where  that  commodity  is  so  precious. 

These  mountains  produce  a  great  number  of  wild  beasts,  and 
especially  immense  troops  of  very  mischievous  apes,  of  which  the 
most  curious  are  the  callitriches,  or  green  monkeys  ;  so  called  on 
account  of  the  olive  green  shade  of  their  hair,  which  is,  as  you 
are  aware,  a  rare  color  among  animals ;  also  the  gorilles,  very 
similar  to  the  orang  outangs,  but  stronger  and  still  more  rare. 

6.  The  Atlas  Mountains.  —  This  vast  system  of  moun- 
tains is  composed  of  three  principal  chains  —  the  Lesser  Atlas, 
which  follows  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  from  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar,  as  far  as  Cape  Bon,  opposite  which,  when  the  sky  is 
clear,  may  be  seen  the  banks  of  the  great  Island  of  Sicily ;  the 
Greater  Atlas,  which  pursues  very  nearly  the  same  course,  but 
at  some  distance  from  the  sea ;  and  the  Upper  Atlas,  or  Daran, 
which,  almost  parallel  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  connects  to- 
wards the  west  the  two  preceding  chains,  and  presents  every 
year,  by  reason  of  its  great  elevation,  the  spectacle  of  perpetual 
snows. 

The  vegetation  of  the  Atlas  has  much  similarity  to  that  of  the 
warm  climes  of  the  south  of  Europe.  The  dense  thickets  which 
are  found  there  are  composed,  for  example,  of  furze  and  hntislcs, 
branching  and  crooked  shrubs,  whose  reddish  fruits  are  about  the 
size  of  a  small  pea,  or  arhute  trees,  with  their  red  and  sour  fruits, 
having  the  form  of  a  strawberry,  and  which  afford  a  treat  to  chil- 
dren and  birds.     Higher  up  may  be  seen  forests  of  oaks,  with 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AFRICA.  169 

their  leaves  always  green,  even  in  winter,  and  one  variety  of 
which  bears  sweet  acorns,  which  are  the  dehght  of  both  the 
rich  and  poor  inhabitants  of  the  Atlas.  Higher  still,  we  en- 
counter pines,  (but  no  fir  trees,)  and  in  certain  places  cedars, 
those  beautiful  trees  of  which  we  have  spoken  in  connection  with 
Lebanon. 

The  animals  of  the  Atlas  are  as  various  as  numerous.  Lions 
have  become  rare,  but  panthers,  jackals,  monkeys,  and  gazelles 
are  frequently  met  with,  besides  several  interesting  quadrupeds 
of  which  we  have  never  yet  had  occasion  to  speak.  The  caracal 
or  Barhary  lynx,  of  the  size  of  a  large  dog,  of  a  red  color,  is  re- 


Barbary  Lynx. 

markable  for  the  tufts  of  hair  which  terminate  its  ears.  It  has 
the  habits  of  the  wildcat,  but  as  it  is  larger,  it  attacks  large 
game,  and  especially  the  antelope ;  caught  young,  it  may  be 
easily  tamed.  When  pressed  by  hunger,  it  is  said  to  be  bold 
enough  to  attack  man. 

Another  quadruped,  which  is  very  similar  to  the  preceding,  is 
the  quepard,  a  charming  animal,  of  graceful,  slight,  and  bounding 
form,  with  a  tawny  skin,  spotted  with  black.  The  Mussulman 
princes  have  long  been  in  the  habit  of  making  use  of  it  in  the 
chase,  bearing  it  behind  them  on  the  saddle,  and  not  removing 
the  bandage  with  which  its  eyes  are  usually  covered,  until  they 
come  in  sight  of  the  unfortunate  gazelle,  which  in  a  few  bounds 
15 


170  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

the  quepard  can  soon  overtake  and  strangle,  contenting  itself 
with  merely  sucking  its  blood. 


Quepard. 

Another  animal,  which  lives  in  troops  in  these  countries,  and 
is  the  favorite  prey  of  the  ferocious  beasts  of  which  we  have  just 
spoken,  is  the  buhalus,  the  least  graceful  of  the  antelope  spe- 
cies. This  timid  animal,  of  the  size  of  a  stag,  with  red  hair,  and 
a  tuft  of  long  black  hair  at  the  end  of  the  tail,  presents  a  very 
singular  physiognomy,  on  account  of  its  narrow,  elongated  head, 


Bubalus. 


its  eyes  placed  almost  close  to  the  ears,  and  the  manner  in  which 
its  large  horns  widen  and  curve,  first  forward  and  then  backward. 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AFRICA.  171 

Sect.  3.  Plateaus  of  Africa.  —  Africa  includes  only  a 
small  number  of  plateaus,  almost  all  separated  from  each  other 
by  vast  plains,  very  different  in  aspect,  climate,  productions,  and 
inhabitants,  and  of  which  one  only  —  that  which  occupies  all  the 
southern  portion  of  the  peninsula — can  bear  comparison  with  the 
vast  plateaus  of  Upper  Asia. 

1.  Plateau  of  Southern  Upper  Africa. —  This  plateau 
is  surrounded  on  four  sides  by  the  Nieuwveld,  the  Blue,  and  the 
Lupata  Mountains,  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon,  and  of  Congo. 
Its  most  southern  portion  is  but  little  known  to  us ;  it  is  generally 
quite  elevated,  inclines  towards  the  west,  and  is  somewhat  moun- 
tainous in  the  eastern  portion. 

Aspect.  —  The  general  aspect  of  the  plateau  is  that  of  vast 
plains,  usually  sandy  and  arid,  interspersed  in  some  portions  with 
scattered  trees,  intersected  here  and  there  with  hills  and  moun- 
tains, and  only  towards  the  north-east  occupied  by  dense  forests. 
These  plains,  farther  than  the  eye  can  reach,  covered  with  the 
graceful  and  delicate  flowers  of  the  heath,  are  clothed  after  the 
rains  with  very  abundant  herbage  ;  but  the  heat  of  the  sun  soon 
withers  it  entirely,  so  that  for  a  great  part  of  the  year  the  travel- 
ler might  fancy  himself  in  a  perfect  desert.  To  travel  in  these 
solitudes,  one  requires  a  very  heavy  wagon,  drawn  by  ten  or 
twelve  oxen,  which  sometimes  sinks  in  the  sand,  sometimes  be- 
comes entangled  in  the  scattered  fragments  of  rock ;  and  while  he 
is  repairing  a  pole  or  a  broken  axle,  the  oxen  escape  to  seek,  at  a 
distance,  fresh  grass  and  a  little  water,  at  the  risk  of  falling  into 
the  clutches  of  lions.  How  many  times  has  the  missionary,  thus 
abandoned  in  the  midst  of  the  desert,  been  compelled  to  wait 
whole  days  a  prey  to  the  horrors  of  thirst,  and  beneath  a  scorch- 
ing sun,  until  his  companions  sent  in  the  pursuit  have  returned 
with  the  fugitive  cattle ! 

Climate. — The  climate  of  these  countries  is  perfectly  salu- 
brious and  temperate,  but  the  seasons  there  are  entirely  the  re- 
verse of  our  own.  The  rainy  and  cold  season  corresponds  with 
our  summer  months,  and  in  the  month  of  July  or  August  snow  is 
sometimes,  although  rarely,  seen  to  fall,  which  is  always  a  great 
calamity  to  the  natives,  whose  cattle  are  obliged  to  pass  the  whole 
year  in  the  open  air.     This  plateau  being  quite  elevated,  the  heat 


172  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE, 

is  not  SO  excessive  as  would  be  supposed  from  its  vicinity  to  the 
equator ;  nevertheless,  its  long  continuance  during  the  summer 
eventually  dries  up  the  greater  part  of  the  springs,  and  if,  as  very 
often  happens,  one  or  two  years  elapse  without  any  rain,  the 
scourge  of  the  drought  gives  rise  to  unheard-of  evils.  The  cattle, 
which  are  almost  the  only  wealth  of  the  natives,  perish  by  thou- 
sands ;  and  they  themselves  would  for  the  most  part  die  of  want, 
were  it  not  for  the  locusts,  which,  in  ordinary  years  only  a  de- 
structive plague,  in  times  of  famine  become  a  precious  resource. 
The  inhabitants  rise  every  morning  two  hours  before  daylight  in 
order  to  seek  them  while  they  are  yet  benumbed  by  the  coolness 
of  the  night,  and  return  at  noon,  bearing  on  their  heads  enor- 
mous quantities  of  this  kind  of  game,  which  they  cook  in  large 
vessels,  and  on  which  they  subsist  for  many  months. 

It  is  impossible  in  our  climate  to  conceive  of  the  anguish  which 
the  torment  of  thirst  causes  the  traveller,  who  is  obliged  to  cross 
the  desert  during  the  season  when  all  the  springs  are  dried  up. 
In  order  to  supply  the  want  of  water,  the  natives  establish  here 
and  there,  in  the  dry  beds  of  the  rivers,  a  very  ingenious  kind  of 
suction  pump,  consisting  of  a  hollow  reed,  sunk  deep  in  the  soil, 
and  bound  at  the  lower  extremity  with  a  little  bundle  of  dried 
grass,  which  serves  for  a  filter.  They  apply  their  lips  to  the 
upper  extremity  of  the  reed,  and  by  great  efforts  of  the  lungs  suc- 
ceed in  raising  the  water  and  ejecting  it  into  their  vessels,  which 
are  generally  nothing  more  than  the  shells  of  ostrich  eggs. 

Minerals  are  not  abundant  on  the  plateau.  It  contains  small 
quantities  of  copper  and  coal,  which  are  but  little  explored ;  iron, 
the  use  of  which  is  understood  by  the  natives ;  and  ochre,  a 
yellow  or  reddish  earth,  which  is  employed  in  the  arts,  and  which, 
mixed  with  fat,  is  used  by  certain  colonies  for  besmearing  the 
body,  by  way  of  ornament.  No  salt  is  found  there,  the  want  of 
which  is  severely  felt. 

Nor  are  the  vegetables  a  striking  feature  among  the  pro- 
ductions of  Upper  Africa.  They  are,  in  truth,  neither  abundant, 
varied,  nor  very  useful,  at  least  in  the  southern  regions ;  for  the 
vegetation  appears  to  be  far  richer  and  more  diversified  towards 
the  north.  The  forests  are  generally  composed  of  shrubs  and 
thorny  trees  of  the  mimosa  or  acacia  species.     The  most  remark- 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AFRICA.  173 

able  IS  the  mimosa  of  the  giraffes^  so  called  because  its  leaves  are 
the  favorite  food  of  these  animals.  This  tree,  with  a  colossal 
trunk,  resembles  in  its  form  our  finest  apple  trees,  and  its  foliage, 
always  green,  offers  a  delightful  refuge  to  the  birds  which  it  re- 
freshes with  its  shade.  The  natives  choose  a  spot  for  their  houses 
beneath  the  shelter  of  the  spreading  mimosa,  and  they  are  always 
careful  to  preserve  one  of  them  in  the  common  court,  where  the 
villagers  assemble  to  prepare  and  sew  their  skins.  Its  wood  can 
be  used  for  timber ;  it  is  also  very  hard,  and  has  the  advantage 
of  never  being  attacked  by  worms ;  unfortunately,  these  useful 
trees,  which  are  of  very  slow  growth,  have  been  mostly  destroyed. 

Missionaries  have  introduced  into  these  countries  the  cultiva- 
tion of  wheat,  potatoes,  maize,  and  fruit  trees,  which  succeed  per- 
fectly. The  natives  had  already  kidney  beans,  melons  of  mid- 
dling quality,  and  pumpkins  or  gourds  of  various  forms,  the  pulp 
of  which  they  eat,  hollowing  and  drying  the  rind,  so  as  to  form  it 
into  calabashes,  spoons,  and  all  kinds  of  vessels.  The  millet  is 
always,  however,  the  basis  of  the  food  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  millet  of  Africa,  known  under  the  various  names  of  caf- 
fre  wheat,  dourah,  or  sorgho,  grows  to  the  height  of  6,  8,  and  12 
feet ;  at  the  top  of  the  stalk  is  a  kind  of  plume  or  panicle  which 
contains  the  seeds.  These  are  very  abundant,  and  much  larger 
than  those  of  the  millet  of  our  countries ;  it  is  moreover  a  very 
fruitful  plant,  and  yields  about  200  grains  for  one  sown.  The 
natives  eat  this  grain  boiled  in  water  or  milk,  or  of  the  meal 
make  bread,  which  is  black,  heavy,  and  rather  tasteless.  This 
plant  requires  a  warm  climate,  but  can  adapt  itself  to  any,  even 
inferior  soils.  It  demands,  however,  much  care,  both  in  weeding 
and  in  preserving  it  from  insects,  and  later  from  the  birds. 

Animals  are  the  especial  wealth  of  the  African  plateau.  Al- 
though the  recent  introduction  of  firearms  into  these  regions  has 
already  greatly  diminished  the  number  of  its  wild  beasts,  it  may 
still  be  said  to  be  the  paradise  of  sportsmen  ;  thus  in  three  months 
(scarcely  six  years  ago)  three  Englishmen,  followed  by  natives, 
who  accompanied  them  in  order  to  secure  the  remains  of  the 
animals  which  they  might  slay,  brought  down  more  than  50  ele- 
phants, and  about  100  rhinoceroses,  to  say  nothing  of  the  lions 
and  antelopes. 

15* 


174  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

The  domestic  animals  are,  first  of  all,  the  ox,  which  consti- 
tutes the  principal  wealth  of  the  natives,  insomuch  that  the  fortune 
of  a  man  is  estimated  by  his  head  of  cattle,  and  oxen  usually 
take  the  place  of  money.  They  raise  also  some  sheep,  whose 
wool  is  very  rough :  the  horse,  which  first  received  the  cognomen 
of  the  incomprehensible  ox,  is  now  very  much  appreciated  by  the 
natives,  and  multipHes  very  rapidly.  Formerly  they  usually 
travelled  mounted  on  the  backs  of  their  oxen. 

Among  wild  beasts  are  encountered,  on  the  plateau,  a  great 
number  oi  hyenas,  jackals,  wild  cats  and  dogs,  a  few  leopards  and 
panthers,  and  many  lions.  The  latter,  although  greatly  dimin- 
ished of  late,  and  rendered  more  timid  by  the  introduction  of  fire- 
arms, are,  however,  still  formidable.  One  would  no  longer  find 
there,  as  did  the  English  missionary  Moffat  twenty  years  ago, 
whole  colonies  compelled  to  build  their  habitations  on  trees,  to 
escape  being  devoured  by  these  animals.  But  there  is  an  in- 
stance alleged  of  one,  among  the  French  evangelical  missionaries, 
who  has  killed  no  less  than  20  around  the  dweUing  where  he  has 
fixed  his  abode. 

The  most  dangerous  of  these  terrible  hosts  of  the  desert  are 
those  which,  having  contracted  the  habit  of  devouring  dead  bodies 
during  the  incessant  wars  of  the  natives,  from  that  moment  follow 
the  footsteps  of  man,  and  prefer  his  flesh  to  any  other.  How- 
ever, even  these  retreat  before  him  by  day  and  one  of  them  has 
recently  been  cited,  which  an  unarmed  traveller  restrained  two 
days  and  a  night  by  the  fixedness  and  power  of  his  glance. 

In  these  immense  plains  are  encountered  incredible  numbers 
of  gazelles  and  other  species  of  antelopes,  among  others  spring- 
boks, (or  leapers,)  which  have  sometimes  been  compared  to 
swarms  of  locusts,  but  the  number  of  which  is  rapidly  decreas- 
ing. The  gnu,  also  of  the  antelope  race,  presents  a  somewhat 
singular  appearance :  its  body  resembles  that  of  a  small  horse, 
with  slender  legs  and  brown  hair ;  but  its  head,  which  is  very 
large,  is  covered  with  a  heavy  beard  and  an  upright  mane,  as 
also  with  two  large  horns,  overhanging  the  forehead  as  far  as 
the  eyes,  and  then  curving  upwards,  terminate  in  a  sharp  point. 
Their  flesh  is  very  delicate,  and  the  colonists  wage  a  fierce  war 
with  them ;  but  they  are  very  distrustful,  and  difficult  of  approach^ 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA. 


175 


When  wounded,  they  turn  upon  the  hunter,  and  pursue  him  as 
as  long  as  they  have  sufficient  strength  left  to  sustain  them. 


Gnu. 


Charming  tenants  of  these  solitudes  of  Upper  Africa  are  the 
zebras,  the  finest  formed  and  the  most  elegantly  clothed,  perhaps, 
of  all  quadrupeds :  the  zebra  has  the  shape  and  graces  of  the 


Zebra. 


horse,  the  fleetness  of  the  stag,  and  its  whole  body  is  covered 
with  black  and  white  stripes.  It  is  said  to  be  as  sober  as  the 
ass,  and  subsists  on  dry  and  tough  grass ;   it  possesses  much 


176 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 


strength,  and  defends  itself  against  carnivorous  animals.  If  it 
could  be  perfectly  tamed,  it  would  be  of  gi'eat  use  on  account  of 
its  extreme  swiftness.  Two  other  varieties  of  the  zebra,  the 
quagga  and  the  dow,  which  inhabit  these  same  countries,  differ 
only  inasmuch  as  they  have  stripes  merely  on  the  fore  part  of 
the  body. 

There  remains  to  be  mentioned  but  one  other  inoffensive 
quadruped,  which,  like  the  preceding,  frequently  becomes  the 
prey  of  lions :  this  is  the  giraffe,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  ani- 


Giraffe. 


mals  in  creation.  The  giraffe  is  as  remarkable  for  its  size  as 
for  the  rapidity  of  its  course.  Its  neck  is  very  long ;  its  head, 
which  is  small,  and  surmounted  by  two  long  horns,  concealed  be- 
neath the  skin  and  covered  with  hair,  often  towers  to  a  height 
of  20  feet ;  its  legs  are  long  and  slender,  the  fore  legs  longer 
than  the  hind  legs ;  the  body,  which  appears  to  be  very  short,  is 
of  a  yellowish  color,  spotted  with  black. 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AFRICA.'  177 

Nothing  can  equal  the  somewhat  massive  dignity  of  their 
movements ;  when  scattered  here  and  there,  they  browse  on  the 
highest  buds,  and  rear  their  beautiful  heads  above  the  verdant 
dome  of  the  acacias  of  their  native  countries.  In  the  open 
plains,  the  giraffe  can  easily  outrun  its  enemies ;  but  the  lion  lies 
in  wait  for  it  at  the  springs,  where  it  goes  to  drink,  and  if  the 
latter  does  not  succeed  in  striking  him  a  violent  blow  with  its 
hoof,  (which  sometimes  kills  him,)  he  leaps  upon  its  back  and 
makes  it  his  prey.  The  negroes  also  hunt  it  as  an  excellent,  and 
especially  as  a  very  abundant  game  ;  with  good  horses  they  are 
enabled  to  overtake  it  after  several  hours'  pursuit,  and  it  is  much 
to  be  feared  that  these  mUd  and  peaceable  animals  will  soon  en- 
tirely disappear. 

Among  the  birds  which  inhabit  these  vast  plains  must  be  speci- 
fied one  already  known  to  us,  and  which  is  the  largest  of  all  — 
the  ostrich ;  too  heavy  to  fly,  but  whose  wings  aid  its  rapid 
course.  The  ostriches  are  also  gradually  disappearing  before  the 
progress  of  civilization  in  these  countries. 

A  curious  bird,  very  common  throughout  Southern  Africa,  is 
the  cuckoo  indicator,  or  the  honey  bird  ;  this  little  winged  animal, 
of  the  size  of  a  finch,  and  of  a  grayish  color,  guides  the  traveller 
to  the  comb  of  the  wild  honey  bees.  It  warbles,  flutters,  and 
hovers  around  him,  until  it  has  succeeded  in  arresting  his  atten- 
tion, then  shoots  forward  as  if  to  direct  him,  perching  itself  here 
and  there,  and  looking  back  to  see  if  it  is  followed  ;  when  at  last 
it  arrives  at  the  hollow  tree,  or  abandoned  hive,  which  contains 
the  honey,  it  points  it  out  with  its  bill,  and  alights  upon  some 
neighboring  branch,  impatiently  awaiting  its  portion  of  the  prize. 
When  the  traveller  has  obtained  the  honey,  which  is  easily  done 
by  suffocating  the  bees  by  means  of  the  grass  which  he  burns 
around  the  swarm,  the  bird  conducts  him  to  a  second,  and  some- 
times even  to  a  third  receptacle. 

Other  no  less  singular  birds  are  the  grossbeaks,  living  in  com- 
munities, and  which  on  this  account  have  been  called  republican 
birds.  This  community  consists  of  an  assemblage  of  nests,  which, 
although  independent  of  each  other,  and  having  each  a  private 
entrance  placed  underneath,  are,  however,  all  collected  under  one 
roof.     This  roof,  which  is  composed  of  long  grass,  and  in  the 


178       The  geography  op  nature. 

form  of  a  parasol,  is  often  8  feet  in  circumference ;  it  protects 
them  completely  from  birds  of  prey  and  the  heaviest  rams. 
When  the  family  increases,  it  adds  another  story  to  its  dwelUng ; 
but  always  underneath,  taking  care  to  leave  small  apertures  for 
communicating  with  the  upper  story.  A  French  missionary  has 
seen  on  a  single  mimosa  two  of  these  nests,  one  of  which  had 
no  less  than  70  openings. 

The  plateau  of  Upper  Africa  would  present  to  our  notice 
many  other  interesting  birds,  if  our  limits  would  permit  us  to 
enumerate  them.  It  produces  also  very  venomous  serpents,  ants, 
and  termites,  in  great  abundance,  devastating  locusts  ;  and  towards 
the  north,  in  the  portions  but  little  kno^^'^l,  the  terrible  tsestse 
fly,  whose  sting  is  irremediably  fatal  to  oxen  and  horses.  The 
cattle,  after  being  stung,  languish  and  die  in  the  space  of  from 
eight  days  to  three  months,  according  to  the  number  of  wounds 
they  have  received. 

Population,  —  The  inhabitants  of  this  plateau  belong  to  two 
very  different  families  of  men,  the  Hottentots  and  the  Caffres, 
concerning  the  latter  of  whom  w^e  shall  soon  have  occasion  to 
speak  more  particularly.  To  the  former  race,  wdiose  features 
seem  to  approach  the  Mongolian,  belong  the  Namaqua^,  the 
Koranas,  and  the  Bushmen,  who  occupy,  from  west  to  east,  all 
the  south  of  the  plateau.  To  the  Caffres,  on  the  contrary,  whose 
form  and  features  bear  more  affinity  to  those  of  European  race, 
appertain  the  most  numerous  inhabitants  of  these  countries. 
The  Bechouana^,  subdivided  into  a  great  number  of  colonies, 
such  as  the  Bassoutos,  the  Barolongs,  the  Batlapis,  &c. 

The  Bechouanas  are  a  lively  race,  intelligent,  and  remarkable 
for  their  good  humor.  They  are  very  well  formed,  have  fine 
eyes  and  teeth,  short  and  woolly  hair,  and  a  dark  copper  com- 
plexion. They  live,  with  their  chiefs,  in  kraals,  or  villages ;  their 
huts  are  of  circular  form,  and  covered  with  long  grass  ;  the  floor 
and  walls  are  washed  with  a  mastic,  composed  of  chalk  and 
refuse  matter ;  the  entrance  is  three  feet  in  height  and  two  in 
width ;  each  dwelling  is  surrounded  by  an  osier  fence,  while  a 
tall  hedge  of  thorns  forms  the  enclosure  of  the  kraal,  and  pro- 
tects the  inhabitants  from  lions  and  other  carnivorous  animals. 

The  apparel  of  the  men  consists  of  a  harass  and  a  tsecha,  both 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  179 

made  of  the  skins  of  beasts.  The  former  is  a  mantle,  which 
they  throw  gracefully  over  their  shoulders  ;  the  latter  covers  their 
loins.  They  wear  on  their  feet  sandals  of  buffalo  or  giraffe 
skin.  Besides  necklaces,  they  suspend  around  their  necks  nu- 
merous amulets,  which  they  esteem  preservatives  against  all  evil. 
Their  arms  consist  of  a  buckler  of  buffalo  or  giraffe  skin,  a  battle 
axe,  a  club,  and  a  bunch  of  hafsagais,  or  javelins,  six  feet  in 
length,  which  a  skilful  warrior  plants  in  the  body  of  his  enemy 
at  a  very  great  distance ;  the  greater  part  are  now  provided  with 
muskets.  The  women  wear,  like  the  men,  a  kaross,  and  a  short 
robe  of  antelope  skin ;  their  necks  and  arms  are  loaded  with 
long  chains  of  colored  glass.  The  men  are  occupied  with  the 
care  of  the  cattle,  making  war,  and  hunting,  or  preparing  skins. 
They  leave  to  the  women  the  cultivation  of  the  fields  and  gar- 
dens, as  also  the  labor  of  the  harvest  and  the  grinding.  A  man 
may  have  as  many  wives  as  he  can  buy.  Among  the  wealthy 
tribes,  a  father  only  bestows  his  daughter  upon  a  son-in-law  who 
can  give  him  in  exchange  at  least  ten  head  of  cattle.  However, 
although  polygamy  is  allowed  by  law,  it  is  rare  in  point  of  fact, 
except  among  the  chiefs  and  heads  of  the  people. 

For  centuries  incessant  wars  have  laid  waste  and  stained  these 
plains  with  blood.  Even  in  our  day  one  cannot  travel  there 
without  having  his  soul  saddened  by  the  sight  of  innumerable 
towns  or  villages  in  ruins,  and  of  heaps  of  human  bones,  scattered 
here  and  there.  Incessantly  threatened  by  the  teeth  of  wild 
beasts,  by  thirst,  or  by  famine,  man  found  in  his  fellow-man  an 
enemy  a  hundred  times  more  to  be  dreaded.  Many  tribes  be- 
came cannibals,  and  feasted  with  delight  on  human  flesh;  de- 
formed children  were  exposed  to  ravenous  beasts ;  old  men  were 
frequently  abandoned  in  the  desert,  and  unnatural  parents  might 
often  be  seen  burying  alive  a  little  infant,  whose  mother  was  dead, 
or  whom  they  believed  themselves  unable  to  rear. 

But  within  forty  years,  since  English,  German,  and  French 
evangelical  missionaries  have  introduced  among  these  unfortunate 
populations  the  knowledge  of  the  gospel  and  Christian  civihza- 
tion,  great  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  social  condition  of  all 
the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  high  plateau  of 
Africa;    many  thousands  have   become   Christians,  through  a 


180  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

sincere  conversion,  and  are  members  of  churches  replete  with 
activity  and  zeal ;  the  missionaries  have  every  where  established 
schools,  and  already,  in  many  places,  the  generation  who  have 
received  their  instructions  have  attained  to  active  life,  and  are 
strenuous  in  promulgating  Christian  civilization.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  churches  and  their  pastors  extends  even  to  those 
natives  who  have  not  yet  abandoned  idolatry.  The  greater  part 
desire  to  be  instructed,  to  wear  garments,  and  construct  them- 
selves houses,  after  the  models  of  civilized  nations  ;  and  cannibal- 
ism, shocked  at  itself,  has  almost  entirely  disappeared. 

In  Africa  the  high  plateau  is  not,  like  that  of  Asia,  surrounded 
by  vast  plains ;  it  inclines  towards  the  sea,  by  a  succession  of 
terraces,  which  may  be  regarded  as  secondary  plateaus,  or  depend- 
encies on  the  central  plateau. 

2.  Southern  Terrace,  or  Terrace  of  the  Cape.  —  This 
terrace  is  subdivided  into  two  others,  very  different  in  vegetation 
and  aspect ;  the  terrace  of  the  Cape,  properly  so  called,  or  mari- 
time terrace,  at  the  south,  and  that  of  the  Karroos,  at  the  north. 

The  Karroos,  which  border  almost  all  the  high  plateau,  at 
the  south  of  the  Nieuwveld  chain  of  mountains,  are  plateaus  des- 
titute of  rivers  and  trees,  with  a  clayey  and  reddish  soil,  which, 
under  the  influence  of  the  heat  of  summer,  becomes  almost  as 
hard  as  tile.  During  the  dry  season,  all  vegetation  is  suspended 
in  the  Karroos  ;  the  unctuous  plants  only  preserve  a  vestige  of 
verdure.  But  as  soon  as  the  rains  descend,  these  plains  are 
robed  in  dazzling  green;  thousands  of  beautiful  flowers  burst 
into  blossom,  and  fill  the  air  with  their  perfumes ;  antelopes 
and  other  game  descend  from  the  neighboring  mountains,  and  the 
colonists  bring  thither  their  cattle  from  all  quarters.  No  disputes 
arise  concerning  the  possession  of  these  natural  prairies,  for  they 
are  vast  enough  to  satisfy  the  wants  of  all ;  the  colonists  only 
approach  each  other  to  hold  pleasant  converse,  and  to  strengthen 
the  bonds  of  friendship  which  unite  them.  But  the  magnificence 
of  the  Karroo  lasts  scarcely  a  month ;  the  sun  has  very  soon 
withered  the  plants ;  the  desert  reappears  on  all  sides,  and  men 
and  animals  are  obliged  to  abandon  these  places,  which  become 
henceforth  uninhabitable. 

South  of  the  Karroos,  and  separated  from  them  by  other 
chains  of  mountains  parallel  with  the  Nieuwveld  Mountains,  is 


THE  CONTINENT  OP   AFRICA. 


181 


situated  the  maritime  terrace  of  the  Gape,  the  best  cultivated  por- 
tion of  Southern  Africa. 

The  aspect  of  this  country  is  generally  severe :  barren  moun- 
tains presenting  the  form  of  tables ;  great  spaces  covered  with 
sandy  steppes,  in  the  midst  of  which  cultivated  spots  form,  as  it 
were,  a  kind  of  oases ;  rivers  destitute  of  water  during  a  great  part 
of  the  year ;  and  every  where,  in  a  word,  an  African  aspect. 

The  climate  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  world ;  and  in  this  respect 
the  possession  of  Cape  Colony  is  invaluable  to  England,  which 
makes  use  of  it  as  a  place  of  recruit  for  invalids,  especially  for 
the  sick,  who  come  from  the  hot  and  unhealthy  climates  of  India. 
The  only  drawback  to  this  climate  is  its  frequent  droughts, 
whose  effects  the  colonists  seek  to  counteract  by  paying  much  at- 
tention to  the  canals  for  navigation. 

Vegetables.  —  From   the  colonies  of  the   Cape  are  exported 


16 


Bruyere. 


182 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


to  US  some  of  the  most  magnificent  plants  which  adorn  our  green- 
houses and  gardens,  among  others  exquisite  heaths,  sweet  scented 
geraniums,  the  iris,  and  unctuous  and  bulbous  plants  of  every 
kind.  Nevertheless,  the  vegetation  of  these  countries  satisfies 
neither  the  eyes  nor  the  taste  of  a  European ;  no  tufted  grass,  no 
forests,  meet  his  view ;  only  clusters  of  trees  without  freshness  or 
depth  of  shade. 

A  plant  which  grows  abundantly  in  the  arid  and  dry  soils  of 


Aloes. 


these  regions  is  the  aloe,  which  is  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  the 
juice  with  which  it  is  impregnated.    This  gummy,  resinous  sub- 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  183 

stance  is  sometimes  extracted  by  making  incisions  at  the  base  of 
the  leaves,  sometimes  by  cutting  them  in  fragments  and  boiling 
them.  The  juice  of  the  aloe  is  of  a  yellowish  red,  and  is  very 
much  employed  in  medicine,  and  in  the  veterinary  art.  In  the 
unenlightened  times  of  the  middle  ages,  elixirs  were  concocted 
of  it,  which,  it  was  said,  would  wonderfully  prolong  the  life  of 
man. 

The  soil  naturally  produced  neither  cereals  nor  fruit  trees ;  but 
the  Dutch  and  English  colonists  have  long  since  introduced  the  cul- 
tivation of  our  vegetables,  grains,  and  best  fruits  —  orange,  lemon, 
and  apple  trees,  maize,  barley,  millet,  and  wheat,  besides  a  con- 
siderable number  of  the  productions  of  India.  The  wheat  of  the 
Cape  is  accounted  the  heaviest  and  the  best  in  the  world,  and  in 
this  respect  the  fertility  of  this  colony  renders  it  an  abundant 
granary  for  the  sailor,  and  for  the  other  English  colonies.  The 
cultivation  of  the  vine  was  introduced  into  the  Cape  by  Protes- 
tants, whom  the  repeal  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  by  Louis  XIV.  had 
banished  from  France,  and  the  Lunel  and  Frontignac  wines,  which 
are  exported  thence,  are  almost  equal  to  those  from  which  they 
took  their  origin.  As  for  the  famous  Constance  whines,  which  are 
obtained  from  plants  brought  from  Shiraz,  in  Persia,  they  possess 
a  flavor  which  is  met  with  in  no  French  wines.  The  animals, 
however,  are  the  most  prominent  feature  among  the  productions 
of  Cape  Colony. 

Horned  and  wool-hearing  cattle  are  found  there  in  very  great 
profusion,  and  the  cattle  owners  are  in  possession  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  country ;  some  possess  from  500  to  600  oxen,  and  as 
many  as  4000  or  5000  sheep.  The  wools  of  the  Cape,  similar 
to  the  merino  wools,  are  reputed  excellent,  and  are  more  and 
more  in  demand  in  European  markets.  The  horned  cattle  furnish 
a  renowned  butter,  and  a  great  quantity  of  hides. 

Lions  and  other  wild  beasts  of  the  same  nature  long  ago  dis- 
appeared before  the  steps  of  the  colonists.  Troops  of  monkeys 
(among  others  the  cyrocephale  choema)  are  the  scourge  of  the 
gardens  and  orchards.  They  usually  practise  their  thefts  by 
night ;  some  act  as  sentinels,  others  penetrate  into  the  enclosure ; 
and  the  remnant  of  the  band,  ranged  in  single  file  extending 
to  a  place  of  refuge,  pass  from  hand  to  hand  the  stolen  goods. 


184  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

Another  very  pretty  animal,  which  makes  considerable  havoc  in 
the  fields  of  the  natives,  is  the  Jerboa,  a  large  species  of  rat,  which, 
issuing  from  its  hole  by  night,  gnaws  with  its  sharp  teeth  the 
finest  millet  stalks.  The  fore  feet  of  this  animal  are  too  short  to 
enable  it  to  run,  or  clear  a  wall ;  it  can,  however,  in  a  smooth 
field,  leap  great  distances,  and  thus  justifies  the  epithet  of 
springer,  which  has  been  given  it  in  the  country. 

The  arid  and  desert  regions  of  the  colony  contain  also  many 
serpents ;  among  others  the  horned  snake,  so  called  on  account  of 
a  kind  of  thorn,  or  slender  and  pointed  horn,  which  projects 
above  each  of  its  eyelids.  Ancient  authors  would  explain  the 
use  of  these  horns  by  informing  the  reader  that  when  it  crouches 
in  the  sand,  the  malicious  serpent  displays  them  above  the  sur- 
face in  order  to  serve  as  a  bait  to  the  birds,  which  mistaking  them 
for  small  worms,  approach  to  devour  them,  and  are  immediately 
seized  by  the  crooked  teeth  of  the  reptile.  It  was  evidently  to 
these  habits  of  the  horned  snake  that  the  prophecy  pronounced 
by  Jacob  relative  to  one  of  his  sons  had  reference :  "  Dan  shall 
be  a  serpent  by  the  way,  an  adder  in  the  path,  that  biteth  the 
horse  heels,  so  that  his  rider  shall  fall  backwards."  (Gen.  xlix.  17.) 

But  Providence  has  bestowed  upon  these  countries  a  precious 
bird  for  combating  these  dangerous  reptiles,  namely,  the  secretary, 
so  called  on  account  of  the  long,  stiff  feather  wdiich  it  has  behind 
its  head.  This  bird,  which  is,  moreover,  quite  large,  attacks  and 
vanquishes  serpents  without  other  weapon  than  its  wings.  The 
menaced  reptile  erects  itself,  and  darts  forward ;  but  the  secretary, 
expanding  one  of  its  wings,  spreads  it  before  him,  shielding  him- 
self with  it  as  with  a  buckler ;  and  while  the  serpent  unsuccess- 
fully exhausts  its  venom  in  biting  insensible  feathers,  it  deals  him 
with  the  other  wing  such  vigorous  blows,  that  soon  the  benumbed 
reptile  staggers,  falls,  and  is  devoured  by  its  enemy.  Some  per- 
sons in  the  Cape  rear  this  bird  to  destroy  the  lizards,  serpents, 
and  rats  which  infest  the  poultry  yards. 

The  population  is  yet  inconsiderable ;  an  extent  of  country 
equal  to  one  half  of  France  is  occupied  by  only  250,000  inhabit- 
ants. The  whites,  who  compose  half  of  this  number,  are  chiefly 
descended  from  the  Dutch,  who  were  the  first  to  establish  them- 
selves in  this  country.    The  English,  who  are  now  the  masters  of 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AFRICA.  185 

this  vast  territory,  are  far  less  numerous.  The  colonists,  according 
to  the  nature  of  their  occupations,  are  divided  into  three  classes  ; 
the  vine  dressers,  the  agriculturists,  and  the  hoors,  peasants  who  are 
engaged  in  the  rearing  of  cattle,  and  in  whose  service  the  natives 
are  employed.  They  impatiently  endure  the  yoke  of  England, 
especially  since  she  has  abolished  slavery.  Some,  even,  in  order 
to  escape  from  this  dominion,  have  established  themselves  at 
a  distance,  in  those  regions  of  the  high  plateau,  which  are  but 
little  known,  where  they  have  dispossessed  and  cruelly  tyrannized 
over  the  natives.  These  enterprises  of  the  boors  have  been  the 
principal  cause  of  the  wars  which  have  recently  imbrued  these 
countries  in  blood. 

The  colored  population  is  composed  both  of  il/aZa^s,  transported 
thither  from  the  south-east  of  Asia,  in  order  to  be  employed  as 
free  laborers  in  the  cultivation  of  the  lands  of  the  colony,  and  of 
Hottentots,  who  are  the  ancient  possessors  of  the  soil.  Although  of 
the  negro  race,  the  Hottentots  resemble  extremely,  in  the  pyram- 
idal form  of  their  head,  the  populations  of  the  Mongolian  race ; 
they  have  prominent  cheek  bones,  oblique  eyes,  a  broad  and  flat 
nose,  a  yellow  and  somewhat  reddish  complexion,  and  short  and 
woolly  hair.  Their  name  is  probably  derived  from  their  language, 
which  is  hard,  broken,  and  replete  with  strong  aspirations  and 
guttural  articulations,  seeming  to  convey  only  to  the  ear  the  sylla- 
bles hot-en-iot.  These  men,  good  natured  and  mild,  but  apathet- 
ic, and  too  much  addicted  to  strong  drink,  have  been  relieved 
by  the  English  from  the  oppression  under  which  they  had  so 
long  groaned ;  and  now  dispersed  over  the  whole  territory,  they 
render  themselves  very  useful  to  the  colonists,  watching  their 
flocks,  driving  their  vehicles,  and  cultivating  their  gardens  and 
lands. 

As  regards  religion,  most  of  the  whites  are  Protestants ;  the 
Malays  are  Mahometans,  and  the  Hottentots  generally  idolaters. 
Nevertheless,  missionaries  have  within  some  years  obtained  great 
advantages  among  them.  They  compute  among  the  Hottentots 
a  considerable  number  of  flourishing  churches  and  well-attended 
schools.  Most  of  the  parents  evince  as  much  ambition  as  those 
of  European  countries  in  having  their  children  taught  to  read, 
write,  and  recite  passages  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  And  as  is 
16* 


186  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATUEE. 

every  where  the  case,  civilization  goes  hand  in  hand  with  reli- 
gious progress.  The  Christian  natives  are  better  clothed,  the  num- 
ber of  their  flocks  increases,  and  their  granaries  are  well  stocked 
with  millet  and  barley. 

3.  Terraces  of  the  Eastern  Coast.  —  The  plateau  of 
Africa  slopes  on  its  eastern  side  by  one  or  more  terraces,  as  yet 
but  little  known,  and  bearing  different  names. 

(1.)  Coast  of  Natal,  or  Caffraria.  —  The  aspect  of  this  coast, 
which  is  quite  narrow,  (only  about  30  leagues  in  width,)  is  very 
different  from  that  of  Cape  Colony.  Caffraria  is  a  country  well 
suppHed  with  water,  rich  in  perpetual  verdure,  with  fine  forests, 
and  rich  pastures,  favorable  to  the  increase  of  cattle. 

The  climate  is  healthy  and  mild,  and  much  less  exposed  than 
that  of  the  Cape  to  the  scourge  of  the  drought. 

The  vegetation  is  flourishing  and  vigorous.  The  forests,  inter- 
woven wdth  parasitical  plants,  and  with  cactuses  of  fantastic  form, 
consist  generally  of  a  kind  of  thorny  copse,  where  the  Caffre,  who 
creeps  or  glides  like  the  serpent  among  these  inex^tricable  thickets, 
finds  a  sure  refuge  both  in  times  of  peace  and  of  war.  He  rushes 
thence  upon  his  enemies,  or  upon  the  farmei-s'  flocks,  and  shel- 
tered in  this  inaccessible  fortress,  he  defies  the  power,  discipline, 
and  skill  of  the  European.  Thus  it  may  be  easily  understood 
how  the  late  wars  in  these  countries  have  been  so  disastrous  to 
the  soldiers  and  the  English  colonists.  The  cultivated  plants,  are 
principally  millet  or  caffre  wheat,  maize,  barley,  tobacco,  and 
different  vegetables. 

The  animals  are  for  the  most  part  the  same  as  those  of  the 
plateau  —  antelopes,  lions,  panthers,  elephants,  jackals,  ostriches, 
&c.  In  the  forests  the  African  buffalo  is  also  frequently  en- 
countered, whose  gigantic  horns,  at  the  base  a  foot  in  width,  and 
diverging  horizontally  from  the  head,  overshadowing  the  eyes, 
give  the  animal  a  ferocity  of  appearance  diflicult  to  describe. 
The  Caffres  hunt  them  both  for  their  flesh,  which  is  very  savory, 
and  for  their  skin,  of  which  they  make  excellent  leather  straps. 
But  this  hunt  is  dangerous,  and  requires  much  hardihood  and 
presence  of  mind. 

Another  formidable  inhabitant  of  the  dense  forests  of  this 
country  is  the  masked  wild  boar,  so  called  on  account  of  four 


THE    CONTINENT    OF   AFRICA. 


187 


protuberances  which  project  from  its  face,  above  and  below  the 
eyes,  and  give  it  a  truly  hideous  aspect.  It  is  provided  with 
tusks  which  are  sometimes  a  foot  in  length.  It  is  a  fierce,  un- 
tamable animal,  of  a  natural  ferocity,  an  encounter  with  which 
is  sometimes  very  dangerous. 

The  inhabitants  resemble  the  negro  race  in  their  crispy  hair 
and  black  skin,  but  compare  with  the  Europeans  in  their  lofty 
stature,  the  regularity  of  their  features,  and  the  elegance  of  their 
forms.  They  are  generally  nomadics ;  they  cultivate  the  earth  a 
little,  but  subsist  principally  by  their  flocks.  Their  towns  are 
little  more  than  vast  camps,  which  they  quit  or  transport  with 
great  facility.  Cattle  take  the  place  of  current  money  ;  10  oxen, 
for  instance,  constitute  the  ordinary  sum  which  a  man  must  pay 
to  his  father-in-law  as  the  price  of  the  woman  he  marries. 

The  Caffres  are  now  almost  universally  provided  with  horses 
and  muskets,  whilst  at  the  close  of  the  last  century  they  still  gal- 
loped about  on  their  oxen.     They  had  neither  sheep  nor  goats, 


Caffre. 

of  which  they  now  possess  immense  flocks.  They  work  with 
much  skill  in  copper  and  iron,  and  manufacture  beer,  bread,  and 
different  kinds  of  pottery  ware. 

Although  idolaters,  the  Caffres  practise  circumcision.    They 


188  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

have,  like  tlie  Bechouanas,  sorcerers,  or  rain  makers,  whom  they 
believe  to  have  power  to  conjure  the  elements.  If,  notwithstand- 
ing the  offerings  presented  to  the  priest,  rain  does  not  follow,  he 
attributes  this  circumstance  to  some  unfortunate  individual,  whom 
he  accuses  of  magic;  and  generally  the  chief  arranges  with 
the  priest  that  the  denunciation  shall  fall  upon  some  one  whose 
wives  or  flocks  are  coveted  by  the  former.  The  Caffres  are 
very  cruel.  They  have  the  barbarous  custom  of  exposing  their 
infirm  and  aged  parents  to  the  fangs  of  wild  beasts.  Others,  who 
are  cannibals,  are  said  to  fatten  their  parents  in  order  to  devour 
them.  The  English,  German,  and  American  evangelical  mis- 
sionaries, who  have  established  themselves  among  these  savages, 
have  already  obtained  encouraging  successes ;  but  the  recent  wars 
have  undoubtedly  retarded  these  growing  works. 

(2.)  The  Coast  of  Sofala  and  3Iozambique,  as  likewise  the 
Terrace  of  3Ionomotapa,  in  the  interior,  are  still  too  little  known 
to  enable  us  to  describe  them.  From  the  former,  however,  con- 
siderable quantities  of  ivory  are  obtained,  and  from  the  latter  an 
abundance  of  gold  dust.  The  Portuguese  still  possess,  on  its 
coasts,  some  feeble  establishments,  now  rapidly  going  to  decay, 
as  is  also  the  case  with  the  missionary  stations  which  they  had 
founded  there. 

(3.)  The  Coast  of  Zanguehar  and  of  Ajan  is  still  less  known. 
It  is  dependent  upon  a  prince  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Arabia,  the 
Imaum  of  Muscat. 

4.  Northern  Terrace,  or  Terrace  of  Lower  Soudan. 
—  These  regions  are  also  very  imperfectly  known,  no  European 
traveller  having  penetrated  beyond  the  fourth  degree  of  north 
latitude. 

Climate.  —  Two  seasons  only  are  experienced  in  Soudan  —  the 
rainy  and  the  dry  season.  The  duration  of  the  former  is  three 
or  four  months,  but  it  does  not  rain  uninterruptedly  during  all  this 
time.  There  are  often  intervals  of  fine  weather  of  from  24  to 
30  hours.  But  soon  the  rain  recommences,  with  such  violence, 
and  in  such  abundance,  that  it  threatens  to  ingulf  or  sweep  away 
every  thing.  This  season  is  especially  unhealthy  to  Europeans, 
of  whom  three  quarters,  at  least,  sink  under  its  influence. 

Minerals  are  not  abundant.    Gold  is  obtained  in  certain  places 


THE  CONTINENT   OF  AFRICA.  189 

by  washing  the  sands  which  contain  it.  Salt  is  generally  want- 
ing. The  poor  people  are  obliged  to  supply  this  deficiency  by 
water  in  which  ashes  are  infused,  and  which  is  excessively  bitter. 
In  many  parts  of  Soudan,  cakes  of  salt  are  equivalent  to  gold- 
en ingots,  and  the  privileged  countries,  which,  like  Darfoor  and 
Kordofan,  possess  quarries  of  it,  are  visited  every  year  by  numer- 
ous caravans,  which  bring  gold  and  slaves  to  exchange  for  the 
precious  commodity. 

The  cultivated  vegetables  are  chiefly  millet,  maize,  kidney 
beans,  gourds,  and  a  little  wheat.  In  Soudan  also  are  found 
palm.  Jiff,  mimosa,  and  ebony  trees.  But  the  two  most  remarka- 
ble plants  with  which  Providence  has  endowed  this  country,  and 
which  conduce  to  the  health  of  the  inhabitants,  are  the  tamarind 
and  the  sterculia. 

The  tamarind  is  a  tree  of  the  size  of  our  largest  chestnuts,  and 
its  foliage,  similar  to  that  of  the  acacia,  but  thicker,  affords  the 
traveller  a  precious  shelter  from  the  heat  of  the  sun.  Its  flowers 
form  beautiful  yellow,  hanging  clusters ;  its  fruits,  which  are  the 
most  important  part  of  this  plant,  are  composed  of  thick  pods,  a 
little  bent,  like  those  of  certain  beans,  and  filled  with  a  soft  and 
glutinous  pulp,  in  which  are  lodged  small  black  seeds.  Before 
their  perfect  maturity,  these  fruits  are  very  acid,  and  the  natives 
make  use  of  them  instead  of  vinegar  for  giving  a  relish  to  their 
food.  When  ripe,  the  pulp  has  a  very  agreeable  taste,  at  once 
tart  and  sweet.  It  may  then  be  eaten  as  a  sweetmeat,  but  it  is 
employed  especially  in  the  form  of  refreshing  drinks,  for  counter- 
acting dysentery  and  the  various  dangerous  fevers  of  these  cli- 
mates. This  same  substance,  suitably  prepared,  is  also  exported 
into  Europe  for  medicinal  purposes,  and  is  used  in  bilious  fevers 
and  other  irritations  of  the  stomach. 

The  stercidia  is  a  tree  whose  fruit  resembles  the  chestnut,  and 
grows  in  clusters  of  12  or  15  nuts,  4  or  5  of  which  are  con- 
tained in  one  shell.  The  negroes  enjoy  eating  this  fruit  before 
their  meals,  not  on  account  of  its  taste,  —  for  it  is  of  a  tart  and 
pungent  nature,  —  but  owing  to  a  property  which  it  possesses  of 
enhancing  the  flavor  of  any  thing  they  may  subsequently  eat  or 
drink.  It  is  particularly  on  liquors,  and  more  especially  on  water, 
that  this  effect  is  most  sensibly  manifested.    After  chewing  the 


190 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


gourou  or  hola  nut,  (as  this  fruit  is  called,)  the  most  brackisli  wa- 
ter acquires  an  agreeable  taste ;  but  this  effect  only  lasts  while  the 
roof  of  the  mouth  retains  the  tartness  of  the  kola.  The  negroes 
of  the  Soudan  chew  it  incessantly,  and  it  is  the  principal  present 
which  they  make  to  strangers  whom  they  wish  to  honor. 

The  animals  are  very  nearly  the  same  as  those  of  the  plateau 
—  lions,  elephants,  giraffes,  zebras,  ostriches,  &c.  Many  cattle  are 
raised  there.  Oxen,  with  a  bridle  passed  across  their  nose,  are 
used  for  riding  in  almost  all  these  regions  ;  the  rich  have  horses 
and  dromedaries. 

The  population  is  composed  of  vigorous  negroes,  who  walk 
bareheaded  beneath  the  hottest  sun,  and  anoint  their  bodies  with 


the  fat  or  marrow  of  oxen.  The  women  wear  gold  bracelets  on 
their  feet  and  arms,  and  a  ring  of  the  same  metal  in  the  nose,  and 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  car.  Many  of  these  negroes  are  canni- 
bals, who  fatten  their  prisoners  and  eat  them,  if  they  cannot 
sell  them  to  advantage. 


THE   CONTINENT  OF   AFRICA. 


191 


Nothing  can  be  more  odious  than  their  mode  of  procuring  these 
prisoners.  Several  chiefs  usually  concert  together  to  undertake 
in  common  a  man  hunt.  On  the  day  fixed,  they  speedily  betake 
themselves  to  the  mountain  which  they  have  resolved  to  surprise. 
Under  cover  of  the  night,  they  surround  the  villages,  set  fire  to 
the  houses,  put  to  death  those  blacks  who  offer  resistance,  and 
make  captives  of  all  the  rest  —  men,  women,  and  children.    When 


Negroes  driven  into  Slavery. 

any  among  the  prisoners  are  found  to  possess  superior  strength, 
the  victors  make  long  wooden  forks,  and  in  the  space  between  the 
branches,  cramp  the  neck  of  the  captive,  who,  thus  impaled,  would 
in  vain  attempt  flight.  They  then  proceed  to  sort  them,  and 
form  them  into  caravans,  despatching  them  even  beyond  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Mediterranean,  into  Egypt  and  Persia.  Many  thou- 
sands perish  in  crossing  the  vast  deserts  which  separate  them 
from  these  remote  countries.  A  little  half-cooked  dough,  or  a 
iiandful  of  maize,  constitutes   the   nourishment   of  these    poor 


192  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE 

wretches  in  the  desert.  And  if  one  of  them,  becoming  sick  and 
exhausted,  is  unable  to  continue  his  march,  he  is  consigned  to 
some  station  until  he  is  cured  and  fattened,  in  order  that  he  may 
afterwards  be  disposed  of  more  advantageously  ;  but  if  the  car- 
avan is  remote  from  any  habitation,  the  slave  is  abandoned  on 
the  spot,  and  dies  of  starvation,  or  becomes  the  prey  of  some  wild 
beast.  However,  as  the  driver  is  bound  to  give  an  account  of  his 
merchandise,  he  seizes  the  slave,  and  in  spite  of  his  cries  cuts  off 
his  ears,  which  he  salts,  in  order  to  preserve  and  exhibit  them 
when  he  renders  up  his  accounts. 

5.  Western  Terraces,  or  Congo.  —  The  general  aspect 
is  that  of  a  country  sandy  and  flat  on  the  coasts,  and  very  ele- 
vated in  the  interior,  where  the  extremely  fertile  soil  yields  two 
crops  a  year. 

The  climate  is  excessively  hot  during  the  day,  but  the  nights 
are  cool ;  there  are  but  two  seasons,  the  wet  and  the  dry ;  snow 
is  never  seen  there.     Minerals  do  not  seem  to  abound. 

The  vegetation  is  rich  and  varied.  Wlieat,  maize,  rice,  millet, 
tobacco,  and  especially  manioc,  are  cultivated.  This  last  shrub, 
originally  from  America,  is  remarkable  for  its  large,  fleshy  root. 
This  root,  like  every  other  part  of  the  plant,  contains  a  principle 
pernicious  through  its  tartness  and  its  venomous  properties.  But 
as  it  easily  evaporates,  it  may  be  extracted  by  subjecting  the  sub- 
stance to  a  powerful  heat.  The  root  is  first  grated,  then  forcibly 
pressed  in  bags,  in  order  to  separate  from  it  the  noxious  juice, 
which  entirely  disappears,  when,  after  a  few  washings,  this  paste 
is  exposed  to  the  sun.  As  soon  as  it  is  well  dried,  it  is  spread  on 
pohshed  plates  and  heated.  A  kind  of  biscuit  is  thus  formed, 
which  is  never  attacked  by  worms,  and  which,  kept  dry,  may  be 
preserved  a  long  time.  This  is  called  cassava  bread.  Soaked 
in  water,  this  cake  swells  considerably:  half  a  pound  is  suffi- 
cient for  the  daily  sustenance  of  a  man.  When  the  roots  are 
scraped,  there  settles  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  a  sediment  re- 
markable for  its  purity  and  whiteness.  This  substance,  known  in 
Europe  by  the  name  of  tapioca  or  manioc  farina,  is  used  for  mak- 
ing creams,  light  pastry,  soups,  and  jellies,  which  are  easy  of 
digestion.  The  banian  Jig  tree,  which  is  not  diffused  in  Africa  as 
in  India,  is,  however,  found  in  Congo :  one  of  them  may  be  seen 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  193 

in  the  square  of  every  village,  and  beneath  the  shade  of  its  ven- 
erated foliage  are  held  the  assemblies  in  which  public  affairs  are 
discussed.  But  the  most  remarkable  tree  of  Congo,  as  also  of 
Soudan,  and  of  the  northern  part  of  the  plateau  of  Upper  Africa, 
is  the  haohabj  the  giant  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.     The  trunks 


Baobab. 

of  some  of  them  are  even  100  feet  in  circumference,  and  their 
branches,  bowed  by  their  enormous  weight,  sometimes  descend 
even  to  the  earth,  forming  (so  to  speak)  an  enormous  clump  of 
verdure.  It  would  appear  also  that  this  colossal  tree  may  attain 
an  extraordinary  old  age  ;  certain  specimens,  it  is  said,  could 
have  lived  no  less  than  4000  or  5000  years.  The  fruit  known  by 
the  name  of  monkey  bread,  because  these  animals  are,  it  seems, 
very  fond  of  it,  resembles  a  small  oblong  gourd.  The  bark  of 
this  fruit,  which  is  quite  thick  and  hard,  is  used  for  making  ves- 
sels of  every  kind.  The  white,  sweet,  and  somewhat  tart  pulp, 
which  is  found  in  the  interior  around  the  kernel,  is  eaten,  or 
made  into  a  lemonade,  which  is  one  of  the  most  efficacious  reme- 
dies for  the  dysentery  —  an  affection  so  much  to  be  dreaded  in 
these  hot  climates,  owing  to  its  rapid  progress.  By  burning 
these  fruits  and  boiling  the  ashes  with  palm  oil,  an  excellent 
soap  is  manufactured.  Of  the  filaments  which  the  bark  of  the 
tree  contains  are  made  ropes,  sacks,  and  cloth  for  the  use  of  the 
poor.  The  wood  is  too  soft  to  be  useful ;  usually,  indeed,  all 
the  interior  having  gone  to  decay,  the  tree  is  left  perfectly 
hollow,  and  sometimes  an  abundance  of  water  accumulates  in  its 
17 


194  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

trunk :  more  than  a  hundred  men,  we  are  assured,  could  be  ac- 
commodated in  the  cavity  of  one  of  these  giant  trees.  Thus 
every  part  of  the  plant  is  rendered  useful,  and  in  times  of  famine 
not  only  its  finits,  but  likewise  its  leaves,  are  eaten.  Independ- 
ently of  every  thing  else,  the  baobab  affords  an  invaluable  shel- 
ter to  the  natives,  both  from  the  heat  of  the  sun  and  from  the 
rain  and  storms. 

The  animals  appear  to  be  the  same  as  those  which  have  been 
designated  on  the  high  plateau. 

The  inhabitants  belong  to  the  negro  race.  The  Conques  are 
almost  all  idolaters.  There  exist,  however,  among  them.  Catholic 
missions,  which  have  extended  their  civiHzing  influence  over  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  natives.  They  are  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Portuguese,  who  founded  them  in  the  19th  century, 
and  who  have  always  the  mastery  of  a  portion  of  this  vast  coun- 
try. As  for  the  independent  Conques,  their  idolatry  is  that  of 
fetishism ;  that  is,  the  worship  of  animals,  trees,  rocks,  &c.,  ac- 
companied by  sanguinary  festivals  and  human  sacrifices. 

6.  Plateau  of  Abyssinia.  —  At  the  north-east  of  Upper 
Africa,  between  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon  and  the  Red  Sea, 
rises  a  picturesque  and  hilly  country,  sumamed,  on  this  account, 
the  African  Switzerland:  this  is  Abyssinia.  This  country  is 
a  collection  of  plateaus,  separated  from  each  other  by  chains 
of  mountains,  the  principal  of  which  are,  at  the  west,  that  of 
Amhara,  which  is  the  highest ;  at  the  south-east,  that  of  Shoa ; 
and  at  the  north-east,  Tigre,  which  is  an  elevation  of  9000 
feet 

Aspect.  —  Nothing  can  be  more  variable  than  the  aspect  of  this 
country.  The  soil  generally  bears  the  impress  of  violent  vol- 
canic convulsions.  The  scene  is  constantly  changing  from  rocky 
or  desolate  places  to  valleys  or  plains  of  a  magnificent  verdure. 
Every  where  against  the  horizon  appear  mountains  of  fantastic 
forms,  some  resembling  tables,  others  towers,  or  gigantic  ram- 
parts, and  which  can  only  be  ascended  by  the  aid  of  ladders  and 
ropes. 

Climate.  —  From  this  diversity  in  the  elevation  of  the  soil 
necessarily  results  a  great  variety  of  climates.  The  most  ele- 
vated plateaus  —  little  wooded,  but  covered  with  herbage  and 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AFRICA.  195 

cultivation  —  enjoy  a  temperate  climate ;  the  nights  are  cool,  and 
the  productions  similar  to  those  of  Europe.  In  the  low  countries, 
where  the  vegetation  is  superb,  and  the  soil  extremely  fertile,  the 
climate  is,  on  the  contrary,  excessively  hot,  and  much  less  salu- 
brious. The  middle  lands  participate  in  the  advantages  of 
both  climates.  There  are  but  two  seasons  in  Abyssinia,  the 
dry  and  the  rainy  season  ;  the  latter  commences  in  April  and 
ends  in  August.  During  this  season  the  morning  is  usually  fine ; 
in  the  afternoon  the  sky  becomes  overcast,  and  the  rain  descends 
in  torrents,  accompanied  by  thunder  and  lightning ;  there  is  snow 
on  the  high  mountains. 

Minerals.  —  Gold  and  iron  are  found  there.  Salt  serves  in 
Abyssinia  for  current  money.  It  is  obtained  from  a  vast  plain, 
which  one  would  take  at  a  distance  for  a  field  covered  with  snow 
or  ice.  The  Abyssinians  detach  this  salt  in  sheets  of  a  foot  in 
length,  three  inches  in  thickness,  and  as  many  in  width ;  it  is  the' 
most  frequent  medium  of  exchange  in  commerce ;  35  of  these 
sheets  are  worth  a  talau,  or  silver  coin  of  60  or  70  cents.  In 
important  transactions,  use  is  made  of  pieces  of  gold  an  ounce 
in  weight. 

The  vegetation  differs  widely,  according  to  the  relative  height 
of  the  different  portions  of  the  country.  Pastures  destitute  of 
trees,  but  well  watered,  and  fields  carefully  cultivated,  occupy  the 
highest  plateaus.  There  are  found  maize,  barley,  millet,  wheat, 
and  a  grain  peculiar  to  Abyssinia,  and  which  is  known  by  the 
name  of  teff.  This  grain,  that  is  scarcely  the  size  of  a  pin's 
head,  yields  a  farina  of  which  excellent  bread  is  made,  and  is 
in  general  use  in  this  country.  To  make  their  tabeta^  (or  bread,) 
the  Abyssinians  dilute  this  farina  in  a  quantity  of  water,  and  leave 
it  near  the  fire  until  it  ferments ;  the  dough,  moulded  in  round 
cakes,  is  spread  upon  a  platter  of  baked  earth,  and  when  pene- 
trated by  the  heat,  is  immediately  removed.  It  has  then  the 
form  of  our  pancakes,  and  constitutes  a  light  food  of  excellent 
quality,  but  a  little  tart.  The  teff  possesses  the  valuable  property 
of  growing  with  great  rapidity ;  in  damp  places  it  yields  as  many 
as  three  crops  a  year.  Its  produce  is  also  very  abundant;  in 
good  years,  the  seed  of  the  teff  multiples  40  fold. 

In  the  lowest  countries  are  found,  in  abundance,  mimosas; 


196 


THE  GEOGRAPHY   OP  NATURE. 


among  others,  that  which  produces  the  gum  arable ;  cotton  trees, 
whose  down  is  reputed  excellent ;  sugar  cane,  the  tamarind,  the 
tree  which  produces  incense,  and  the  coffee  tree,  which  seems 
indeed  to  be  native  to  these  countries,  whence  it  has  carried  into 
Arabia  and  throughout  the  world  the  name  of  its  primitive  coun- 
try, Caffa,  (coffee,)  situated  at  the  south  of  Abyssinia. 

On  the  middle  terraces  is  encountered  an  extremely  rich  and 
diversified  vegetation  —  almost  all  the  plants  of  Southern  Europe, 
orange  and  lemon  trees,  vines,  &c.,  and  others  wholly  peculiar  to 
Abyssinia.     Among  the  latter  may  be  mentioned  the  colquall,  a 


Colqiiall, 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  197 

great  euphorbia,  which  attains  as  many  as  40  feet  in  height, 
(while  ours  are  only  small  plants,)  and  which  has  a  very  singu- 
lar form.  Its  branches,  wholly  destitute  of  leaves,  diverge  from 
the  trunk  like  those  of  a  great  candelabra ;  in  its  flowering  season, 
each  of  them  is  terminated  by  a  beautiful  flower,  of  a  golden 
yellow,  which  afterwards  gives  place  to  a  triangular  crimson  fruit. 
These  extraordinary  plants  were  growing  in  such  abundance  on 
the  side  of  a  certain  mountain,  when  crossed  by  the  English 
traveller  Bruce,  that  its  slopes,  viewed  from  a  certain  height, 
appeared  to  be  covered  with  a  rich  carpet  of  purple  and  gold. 

The  juice  is  obtained  by  means  of  incisions  made  in  the 
trunk  ;  and  rags,  after  being  saturated  with  it,  are  rolled  up  and 
made  use  of  as  torches.  This  juice  is  very  stinging  ;  the  small- 
est quantity,  introduced  into  the  eye,  produces  an  extremely  acute 
inflammation,  and  sometimes  even,  although  rarely,  occasions  the 
loss  of  sight. 

But  of  all  the  productions  by  which  the  Creator  has  mani- 
fested his  bounty  and  wisdom  to  the  inhabitants  of  these  countries, 
none  is  more  remarkable  than  the  coupo.  The  Abyssinians,  chil- 
dren and  adults,  are  all  subject  to  the  sufferings  caused  by  the 
tcBnia  solium,  or  long  tape-worm,  which,  like  a  long  white  ribbon, 
develops  itself  in  the  body  of  man,  and  sometimes  its  length  is 
enormous.  For  counteracting  the  ravages  of  this  animal.  Provi- 
dence has  bestowed  upon  Abyssinia  the  coupo.  This  tree,  which 
forms  every  where  little  groves,  and  rises  15  or  20  feet  in  height, 
is  covered  with  a  profusion  of  clustering  flowers,  which  the  in- 
habitants dry,  and  reduce  to  powder  by  carefully  grinding  them. 
In  order  to  benefit  by  the  use  of  it,  they  swallow  (fasting  mean- 
while) a  handful,  diluted  in  a  vessel  of  water,  which  ultimately 
has  the  effect  of  expelling  the  greater  part  of  this  worm.  Un- 
fortunately it  soon  grows  again,  obliging  them  about  every  two 
months  to  have  recourse  to  this  same  remedy.  This  malady, 
which  even  attacks  foreigners,  presents  otherwise  no  serious 
danger.  The  coupo  is  also  beginning  to  be  much  employed  in 
Europe  as  a  vermifuge. 

The  animals  are  extremely  numerous  and  various  in  Abyssinia. 
In  the  rich  pastures  of  the  high  plateaus  are  found  great  num- 
bers of  all  our  domestic  animals  ;  among  others,  oxen  with  gigantic 
17* 


198  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

horns,  of  which  cups  and  bottles  are  made  ;  shee'p  ivith  very  long 
wool,  and  whose  skin,  suitably  prepared,  is  generally  used  for  the 
clothing  of  the  peasantry;  small  but  active  horses,  asses,  and 
mules,  which  serve  for  beasts  of  burden.  All  Abyssinia  abounds 
in  domesticated  or  wild  dogs  and  monkeys,  of  which  troops  of 
many  thousands  are  sometimes  encountered.  The  lion,  panther, 
elephant,  and  rhinoceros  are  not  rare.  The  hyenas,  with  whose 
howls  the  air  incessantly  resounds,  are  very  bold ;  they  peram- 
bulate by  night  even  the  streets  of  the  large  towns,  and  multiply 
indefinitely,  owing  to  the  superstition  of  the  Abyssinians,  who 
believe  that  under  this  guise  are  concealed  Jewish  sorcerers,  and 
who  on  that  account  dare  not  chase  them.  Locusts  often  ravage 
Abyssinia ;  but  another  animal,  much  more  to  be  dreaded,  not- 
withstanding its  diminutiveness,  is  the  saltsalya,  a  venomous  fly, 
which  issues  by  thousands  from  the  low  and  damp  soils,  at  the 
commencement  of  the  rainy  season.  As  soon  as  their  hoarse 
buzzing  is  heard,  men  and  animals  flee  in  every  direction.  The 
saltsalya,  attaching  themselves  to  the  latter,  pierce  them  with 
their  formidable  stings,  and  often  allow  them  no  respite  until 
they  expire  of  rage  and  agony.  The  camel,  whose  patience  is 
proverbial,  becomes  intractable  when  exposed  to  the  stings  of 
this  insect ;  the  elephant  and  rhinoceros,  in  spite  of  the  thickness 
of  their  hides,  can  only  escape  it  by  rolling  themselves  in  the 
mud,  which,  adhering  to  their  skin,  and  hardening  in  the  sun, 
supplies  them  with  an  additional  cuirass.  Every  year  the  shep- 
herds on  the  eastern  coast  are  compelled  to  retreat  with  their 
flocks  before  this  terrible  little  enemy,  and  to  seek  a  refuge  in 
the  high  plains  of  the  interior,  until  the  rainy  season  is  past.  It 
was  then  not  without  reason  that  the  prophet  Isaiah  (viii.  18, 
19)  made  use  of  the  image  of  these  Ethiopian  flies  in  describ- 
ing the  desolation  which  the  hostile  armies  would  inflict  upon 
Egypt. 

An  animal  of  which  we  should  say  a  few  words,  on  ac- 
count of  the  importance  of  the  products  which  it  furnishes 
commerce,  is  the  civet,  a  quadruped  which,  like  the  chevrotain 
musk,  secretes  in  a  double  pouch,  placed  under  its  tail,  a  sweet- 
scented  and  unctuous  substance,  very  much  used  among  the 
Orientals  for  perfumery,  and  somewhat  employed  elsewhere  as  a 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA. 


199 


medicine.  This  animal,  which  is  larger  than  a  cat,  may  be,  if 
not  tamed,  at  least  encaged,  and  its  pouches  emptied  two  or  three 
times  every  week  with  a  spoon ;  it  has  been  remarked  that  the 
more  delicately  it  is  nourished  the  more  musk  it  yields.  The 
Abyssinians  export  it  annually  into  Arabia  and  the  provinces  of 
Northern  Africa,  to  the  amount  of  about  $  200,000. 


Civet. 

Population.  —  The  Abyssinians  belong  almost  entirely  to  the 
Caucasian  race.  Those  who  inhabit  the  high  plateaus  have  a 
nearly  white  skin  ;  those  of  the  low  portions,  on  the  contrary, 
are  black,  or  almost  black.  They  have  generally  a  lofty  stature, 
regular  features,  and  long  hair.  The  women,  as  in  the  rest  of 
Africa,  are  burdened  with  all  the  heavy  labors.  The  Abys- 
sinians are  not  nomadics  ;  the  country  is  covered  with  isolated 
dweUings,  villages,  and  towns.  Their  manners  are  mild,  but 
extremely  depraved  ;  polygamy  is  not  rare,  and  marriage  is  very 
easily  dissolved.  The  Abyssinians  are  passionately  fond  of  raw 
meat,  merely  dipped  in  pepper. 


200         THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

The  prevailing  religion  is  Christianity,  but  of  a  very  degen- 
erate character,  and  differing  from  that  of  all  other  Christian 
sects.  They  worship  the  saints  and  the  Virgin,  and  practise 
both  baptism  and  circumcision  ;  but  the  baptism  must  be  renewed 
every  year,  and  on  the  18th  of  January  all  the  people  immerse 
themselves  in  the  rivers  for  this  purpose.  The  Abyssinians  sub- 
ject themselves  to  rigorous  fasts,  and  have  many  convents  and 
hermitages.  The  Catholic  missionaries,  at  first  very  well  received 
in  the  16th  century,  then  totally  banished,  have  latterly  obtained 
the  greatest  success,  whilst  the  Protestant  missionaries  have 
been  expelled  from  all  these  countries,  after  a  few  years  of 
struggling  and  futile  efforts.  There  still  exist  in  Abyssinia 
numerous  remnants  of  ancient  colonies  of  exiled  Jews,  who 
have  until  now  preserved  their  laws,  their  language,  and  even 
their  independence  ;  they  are  hated  by  the  Christians,  who  con- 
sider them  all  more  or  less  sorcerers.  Also,  in  this  country  are 
encountered  numerous  Mahometan  populations,  and  others  who 
are  idolaters,  as  the  Gallas,  a  vigorous  and  valiant  race  of 
negroes,  who,  issuing  from  the  interior  of  Africa,  have,  within 
two  centuries,  completely  disorganized  Abyssinia  by  their  inva- 
sions, and  now  occupy  all  the  southern  part  of  it. 

7.  Plateau  of  Upper  Soudan. — This  plateau,  formed  by 
the  different  chains  of  the  Kong  Mountains,  extends  first  from 
east  to  west,  then  northerly.  It  is  not  yet  perfectly  known,  al- 
though many  travellers  have  crossed  it  in  different  directions,  at 
the  peril  of  their  lives. 

Aspect.  —  This  is  a  hilly,  uneven  country,  studded  with  moun- 
tains of  but  little  elevation,  which  are  partly  arid  and  destitute  of 
trees,  partly  wooded  and  covered  with  pastures.  The  traveller 
often  penetrates  immense  forests,  for  centuries  unimpaired  by 
the  axe. 

The  climate  is  much  more  healthy  on  the  plateau  than  in  the 
plains  and  on  the  sea  shore.  However,  after  the  rainy  season, 
many,  especially  among  the  Europeans,  fall  victims  to  fevers  and 
dysenteries. 

The  only  minerals  at  all  abundant  are,  as  we  have  already 
said,  gold  and  iron. 

Vegetables.  —  Besides  the  butter  tree,  of  which  we  have  pre- 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  201 

viously  spoken,  should  be  mentioned,  among  the  useful  plants,  the 
canoe  or  down  tree,  (bombax,)  whose  enormous  trunk,  skilfully 
hollowed  by  the  negroes,  may  be  used  for  making  boats  capable 
of  holding  fifty  persons  ;  the  fruit  of  this  tree  is  also  accompanied 
by  a  down  very  similar  to  cotton.  This  country  also  produces  a 
kind  of  long  pepper,  known  by  the  name  of  Guinea  pepper,  or  mala- 
quette,  and  finally  the  tree  which  yields  the  gourou,  or  kola  nut. 
The  cultivated  plants  are  maize,  wheat,  millet,  melons,  ginger,  and 
especially  the  yam,  that  enormous  tubercle,  which,  cooked  in  the 
ashes,  constitutes  one  of  the  principal  articles  of  food  among  the 
negro  populations. 

The  animals  are  in  no  respect  remarkable.  They  are  domestic 
animals,  horned  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  goats,  and  formidable 
wild  beasts,  lions,  leopards,  elephants,  &c. 

Population.  —  The  various  inhabitants  of  Upper  Soudan  differ 
much  from  each  other  in  respect  to  figure,  religion,  and  civiliza- 
tion. Thus  the  Mandingoes  and  the  Foulahs,  at  the  north  of  the 
plateau,  who  are  Mahometans,  and  resemble  the  whites  much 
more  than  the  blacks,  are  vastly  superior  in  civilization  to  their 
neighbors  at  the  south,  among  whom  they  zealously  propagate 
Islailiism.  They  have  public  and  private  schools,  in  which  they 
teach  the  Koran  of  Mahomet,  and  their  mollahs,  or  teachers,  have 
already  reached  the  borders  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  They  in- 
struct in  reading  and  writing  Arabic,  and,  in  exchange  for  the 
hospitality  which  they  receive,  they  write  for  their  hosts,  with 
the  reeds  which  serve  them  for  pens,  sentences  of  the  Koran, 
which  the  negroes  call  gris-gris,  and  which  they  carry  constantly 
about  them  as  amulets  or  talismans  against  all  accidents. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  negro  races,  still  idola- 
trous, among  whom  the  Mahometan  mollahs  encounter  Christian 
missionaries,  are  the  Ashantees,  established  at  the  south  of  the 
plateau,  a  powerful  and  formidable  nation,  celebrated  for  their 
ferocity.  At  the  funerals  of  the  princes  and  the  great,  they  slay 
hundreds  of  victims ;  after  a  victory  over  a  neighboring  people, 
that  of  the  Fantis,  3000  persons  (of  whom  2000  were  prisoners) 
were  put  to  death.  But  since  the  establishment  of  the  evangel- 
ical missionaries  in  the  capital  of  this  country,  Coumassie,  these 
atrocities   have   diminished.      During   the  last  annual   festivals 


202  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

instead  of  the  torrents  of  human  blood  which  formerly  flowed  on 
these  occasions,  a  single  man,  a  criminal,  was  put  to  death,  and 
in  the  height  of  the  festivities,  hundreds  of  natives  withdrew 
to  take  part  in  the  religious  services  of  the  mission.  There 
are  already  in  the  southern  part  of  this  country  many  zealous 
Christian  churches,  and  the  schools  of  the  missionaries  are  highly 
appreciated. 

8.  Plateau  of  Barbary.  —  The  plateau  of  Barhary,  or  of 
the  BerherSy  is  comprised  between  the  Little  Atlas  at  the  north, 
the  Great  Atlas  at  the  south,  and  the  Upper  Atlas  or  Daran  at  the 
west.  It  is  filled  with  plains  and  valleys,  and  its  aspect  is  ex- 
tremely varied. 

The  climate  which  reigns  in  the  region  of  the  Atlas  is  one  of 
the  finest  in  the  world,  especially  on  the  western  dechvity,  (Maroc,) 
which  the  high  summits  of  the  Daran  shelter  from  the  scorching 
winds  of  the  desert.  The  heat  is  only  insupportable  in  Barbary 
when  the  south  wind,  or  that  of  the  desert,  (simoom,)  prevails, 
which  blows  only  3  or  4  times  a  month,  and  rarely  for  more  than 
24  hours.  Then  the  heat  is  extreme ;  one  experiences  pains  in 
the  head,  lassitude  in  every  limb,  and  difficulty  in  respiration. 
Except  during  the  prevalence  of  the  simoom,  the  heat  is  not  over- 
whelming, especially  to  those  who  do  not  drink  too  freely,  and 
perspire  but  Uttle.  The  rainy  season  constitutes  the  winter,  but 
the  rain  does  not  then  fall  uninterruptedly.  The  winter  lasts  only 
from  November  to  the  end  of  January ;  towards  the  15th  of  Feb- 
ruary the  vegetation  is  in  full  activity,  and  in  the  commencement 
of  March  the  first  fruit  gathering  is  made.  In  all  seasons  the 
nights  are  cool,  and  the  raw  fruits  unwholesome  for  Europeans. 

Minerals.  —  The  high  country  of  the  Atlas  contains  mines  of 
iron,  lead,  salt,  and  very  considerable  veins  of  copper,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  in  Algeria. 

Vegetables.  —  The  influence  of  a  hot  but  not  scorching  temper- 
ature gives  great  force  to  the  vegetation.  In  certain  parts  of  the 
plain,  the  grass  grows  nearly  as  high  as  a  man's  shoulders ;  the 
olive  trees  are  as  fine  as  the  European  oaks ;  the  orange  and 
lemon  trees  are  hardly  inferior  in  size  to  some  of  our  finest  fruit 
trees.  But  although  this  vegetation  has  many  points  of  resem- 
blance to  that  of  Southern  Europe,  it  still  differs  sensibly  from  it 


THE    CONTINENT   OF   AFRICA. 


203 


in  the  production  of  particular  vegetables,  of  which  we  have  not 
yet  had  occasion  to  speak.  Such  is  the  cactus-racket,  or  jig  tree 
of  Barbary,  which  every  where  forms  thick  hedges,  rising  12  or 


Cactus. 


15  feet  in  height.  This  is  a  fleshy  plant,  covered  with  prickles, 
whose  interlaced  rackets,  which  were  at  first  broad  leaves,  lose 
their  form  on  growing  old,  and  finally  become  hard  and  knotty 
branches.  The  cactus  is  among  the  blessings  of  Providence  in 
the  hot  countries  ;  it  furnishes  shade,  and  without  cultivation  pro- 
duces refreshing  fruits.  These  fruits,  which  resemble  a  large  fig, 
serve  for  the  food  of  the  Moors  and  Arabs  during  4  months  of 
the  year.  Other  hedges,  formed  by  agaves,  present  to  the  eyes  of 
the  traveller  a  truly  magnificent  and  imposing  appearance.  The 
long,  pointed,  and  denticulated  green  leaves  of  this  American  plant 
(analogous  to  that  of  the  aloes,  p.  182)  resemble  palisades  inter- 
woven with  each  other,  to  defend  the  approach  of  a  military  post ; 
from  the  midst  of  the  tufts  majestically  rises  a  stalk,  which  grows 
with  great  rapidity,  and  which,  when  it  is  adorned  with  yellow 
flowers,  erects  its  head  above  that  of  every  other  tree.  The  fibres 
contained  in  the  leaves  furnish  an  excellent  flax,  which  is  called 
vegetable  silk,  and  of  which  the  inhabitants  manufacture  very  valu- 
able tissues.  The  marshy  places,  the  beds  of  streams,  of  rivers, 
and  even  those  of  torrents,  which  are  found  dry  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  are  filled  with  oleanders.  These  shrubs, 
in  flower  during  the  summer,  present  the  most  smiling  aspect  in 
the  midst  of  the  wildest  scenes. 


k 


204  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

A  curious  vegetable,  frequently  to  be  met  with  in  the  midst 
of  the  thickets  which  characterize  these  regions,  is  the  dwarf 
date,  or  chamcBsops  palm  tree,  rarely  growing  more  than  six 
feet  high,  and  the  fruit  of  which  the  Arabs  eat,  although  it  is 
somewhat  tough,  and  contains  a  very  large  stone.  When  this 
shrub  is  young,  the  heart  of  it  is  extremely  tender,  and  is  then 
eaten  by  the  Abyssinians,  raw  or  cooked ;  much  of  it  is  sold  in 
their  fairs  or  markets.  We  should  mention  two  plants  which 
are  especially  peculiar  to  the  eastern  part  of  the  high  country, 
(Tunis  and  Tripoli,)  and  these  grow  wild,  although  their  fruits 
are  perhaps  more  savory  when  they  ripen  in  fields  or  gardens ; 
these  are  the  caroh  and  jujube  trees.  The  former,  a  tree  of 
middle  size,  with  large  leaves,  has  for  its  fruit  long  pods,  the  in- 
terior of  which  is  filled  with  a  very  nourishing  pulp,  of  a  mild 
and  sweet  flavor.  The  country  people,  and  especially  the  children, 
consume  great  quantities  of  it. 

The  jujube  is  a  small  tree  of  15  or  20  feet  in  height,  whose 
smooth,  reddish  fruit,  of  the  size  of  an  olive,  and  containing  a  bony 
kernel,  presents  a  firm,  sweet,  and  very  agreeable  meat.  These 
fruits,  which  are  exported  to  us,  after  being  dried  in  the  sun,  are 
used  in  the  preparation  of  soothing  diet  drinks.  They  are  also 
employed  in  the  composition  of  numerous  pastes,  called  pectorals, 
and  among  others  in  the  jujube  paste,  in  which  they  are  mixed 
with  gum  arabic,  wliich  certainly  constitutes  the  most  efficacious 
part  of  them.  Reference  is  had  to  the  jujube  in  the  wonderful 
accounts  wliich  certain  ancient  writers  have  bequeathed  us 
relative  to  the  lotus,  on  which  the  populations  of  the  Cyrenaica, 
a  small  country  at  the  east  of  the  Great  Syrtis,  and  bordering 
on  Egypt,  almost  entirely  subsisted. 

As  for  the  vegetables  of  Barbary,  which  are  found  in  the  south 
of  Europe,  or  with  which  we  are  familiar,  oranges,  lemons,  dates, 
bananas,  pomegranates,  figs,  almonds,  melons,  tobacco,  and  cotton, 
we  will  only  say  concerning  them,  that  the  dates  and  bananas,  be- 
sides being  scarce,  are  much  less  savory  than  in  the  more  south- 
em  regions ;  that  under  the  action  of  an  intelligent  and  skilful 
cultivation,  oranges,  tobacco,  cotton,  (recently  introduced,)  and 
some  other  new  plants,  promise  to  assume  a  very  high  commer- 
cial value  in   the   French   part  of  Barbary;   and,  that   these 


THE   CONTINENT   OF  AFRICA. 


205 


countries,  which  were,  at  the  time  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  gran- 
ary of  Italy ^  are  still  very  fertile  in  wheat.  The  inhabitants  pre- 
serve it  many  years  in  silos,  great  pits,  dug  in  the  earth,  in  diy 
places. 

Animals.  —  In  treating  of  the  Atlas,  we  have  already  mentioned 
the  most  remarkable  animals  —  lions,  panthers,  lynxes,  quepards, 
bubali,  gazelles,  monkeys,  hyenas,  and  jackals.  Almost  all  our 
domestic  animals  are  found  there :  the  horses  are  excellent ;  the 
asses  and  mules  are  used  with  the  saddle ;  camels  are  employed 
in  the  transportation  of  burdens,  instead  of  vehicles,  of  which 
the  natives  make  no  use ;  sheep  and  horned  cattle  compose  the 
principal  wealth  of  the  Arab  tribes.  Chameleons  are  very  fre- 
quently encountered  in  the  hedges  and  thickets.  They  remain 
motionless  on  the  branches  of  trees  and  bushes,  rolling  their  great 
eyes  in  every  direction,  on  the  lookout  for  insects,  which  they 
seize  with  their  long  tongue  without  stirring  from  their  place. 
They  are  very  easily  tamed.     Game  abounds  in  Barbary,  where 


18 


Chameleon. 


206 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


among  others,  is  found  tlie  hen  of  Numidia,  (ancient  name  of 
Algeria,)  or  'pintado,  so  called  on  account  of  the  regularity  of 


Pintado. 

the  spots  of  its  plumage,  which  seem  to  have  been  designed  by  the 
hand  of  a  painter.  This  species  of  hen,  whose  flesh  in  the  wild 
state  is  very  delicate,  may  be  easily  tamed  and  fattened  in  our 
poultry  yards.     The  Romans  made  great  account  of  it. 

The  -population  is  composed  of  very  different  elements.     First, 
the  Berbers,  or  Kohyls,  who  have  given  their  name  to  the  country, 


Ahdel  Kader. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  207 

and  chiefly  inhabit  the  mountains  of  the  Atlas ;  the  Berbers 
are  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  Northern  Africa;  they  are 
of  a  brown  complexion  and  slender  figure ;  then  the  Arabs, 
who  have  been  established  in  this  country  since  the  period  when 
they  came  hither  to  spread  abroad  the  religion  of  Mahomet ; 
their  language,  which  is  also  that  of  the  religion,  preponderates 
throughout  Northern  Africa;  they  are,  as  every  body  knows, 
remarkable  for  their  leanness,  their  thin  nose,  and  the  regu- 
larity of  their  features. 

The  Moors,  who  principally  inhabit  the  cities  and  occupy  them- 
selves with  commerce,  are  a  mixture  of  Arabs  and  Berbers.  In 
the  eastern  part  (at  Tunis  and  Tripoli)  are  found  also  a  consid- 
erable number  of  Turks,  the  dominant  nation,  and  who  occupy 
the  principal  civil  and  military  posts.  All  these  populations  be- 
long to  the  white  race,  and  are  Mahometans. 

Next  come  the  Jews,  in  great  numbers,  confined  (except  in 
Algeria)  in  separate  quarters,  and  compelled  to  wear  a  costume 
considered  as  a  badge  of  the  contempt  with  which  they  are 
overwhelmed ;  a  considerable  number  of  negro  slaves,  brought 
from  the  Soudan ;  and  Franks,  or  Europeans,  {French,  Span- 
iards, Italians,)  who  naturally  abound  in  Algeria,  since  this 
portion  of  the  Barbary  States,  definitively  attached  to  France 
under  a  treaty  of  peace,  offers  to  European  colonization  the 
resources  of  an  eminently  fertile  soil,  and  of  a  generally  agreeable, 
if  not  salubrious  climate.  The  great  majority  of  these  colonists 
are  Catholics ;  some  few  Protestants.  Up  to  the  present  time, 
their  influence  has  been  ineffectual  in  converting  the  Mahometan 
population  to  Christianity. 

Sect.  4.  Plains  of  Africa.  —  1.  Sahara,  or  the  Great 
Desert.  This  immense  plain,  which  is  eight  times  as  extensive 
as  France,  stretches  from  the  plateau  of  Upper  Soudan  to  that 
of  the  Atlas,  and  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  as  far  as  the  Red  Sea, 
or  at  least  to  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  This  is  the  largest  desert 
in  the  world.  The  name  of  Sahara  is  given  more  especially  to 
the  northern  border,  which  is  composed  rather  of  hilly  plateaus 
than  of  plains.  But  it  is  erroneously  represented  by  geographers 
as  a  country  by  itself,  under  the  name  of  Beled-el-gerid,  (or 
land  of  dates.)     The  pasturage  is  more  abundant  there,  and  the 


208  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

cultivable  spaces  more  numerous ;  but  in  the  main  it  is  almost 
wholly  a  barren  and  sterile  country,  and  its  inhabitants  lead  the 
same  kind  of  life  as  those  of  the  Great  Desert. 

The  aspect  of  the  Sahara  is  gloomy  and  desolate,  but  more 
varied  than  one  would  generally  imagine.  At  the  west,  it  pre- 
sents only  a  low  and  sandy  plain  ;  from  the  sea,  the  shore  is  only 
perceptible  at  the  moment  of  touching  it,  and  this  is  undoubtedly 
one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  numerous  shipwrecks,  of  which 
these  inhospitable  borders  have  incessantly  been  the  scene. 
Towards  the  centre,  the  Sahara  is  tolerably  hilly ;  sand  hills 
intermingle  with  plains  covered  with  flints.  The  eastern  part, 
more  commonly  known  under  the  name  of  Desert  of  Libya,  is 
indeed  a  rocky  rather  than  a  sandy  plain. 

Like  verdant  islands  dispersed  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean,  cer- 
tain moist  valleys  fertilized  by  natural  or  artificial  wells,  certain 
retreats  known  under  the  name  of  oases,  have  been  disseminated 
by  divine  wisdom  over  the  surface  of  the  desert,  like  so  many 
harbors,  which  alone  enable  the  voyager  to  traverse  these  im- 
mense solitudes.  The  wells,  carefully  guarded  (even  in  the 
uninhabited  oases)  and  covered  with  skins  or  branches,  in  order 
to  protect  them  from  the  sand  borne  thither  by  the  winds,  are 
furnished  with  a  bucket  and  rope  long  enough  to  reach  the 
water.  Every  one  respects  so  useful  an  establishment,  and  when 
necessary,  the  chief  of  the  oasis  loses  no  time  in  making  the 
needful  repairs.  The  caravans  depend  upon  these  wells  for 
renewing  their  supplies;  but  occasionally  they  find  the  water 
exhausted,  and  then  result  terrible  sufferings  to  the  travellers, 
sometimes  even  causing  the  death  of  many  of  their  number,  and 
of  their  beasts  of  burden. 

Climate. —  The  heat  is  usually  intense  during  the  day,  but  the 
nights  are  cool ;  sometimes  the  wind,  which  uplifts  the  sands  in 
thick  columns,  obscures  the  sun  at  midday,  and  suffocates  travel- 
lers. This  is  a  magnificent  but  terrible  spectacle.  In  calm 
weather,  the  rays  of  the  sun  descending  perpendicularly  upon 
the  sand,  and  reflected  by  the  white  pebbles,  produce  a  glare 
which  is  very  dazzling  to  the  eyesight.  When  the  soil  has  been 
very  much  heated  by  the  action  of  the  sun,  the  phenomenon  of 
the  mirage  is  frequently  produced.    The  earth  then,  at  about 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  209 

a  league's  distance,  seems  to  be  ingulfed  in  a  general  inundation : 
one  fancies  he  sees  islands  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  lake,  whose 
chimerical  waters  reflect  every  object ;  but  in  proportion  as  he 
approaches,  the  borders  of  the  water  seem  to  recede  and  vanish 
only  to  reappear  at  a  little  distance;  while  the  poor  traveller, 
sadly  deluded,  discovers  nought  but  an  arid  plain  and  naked 
rocks. 

Minerals. — In  certain  portions  of  the  desert  are  encountered 
ponds  which  contain  beds  of  salt  of  sufiicient  extent  to  be  worthy 
of  exploration.  This  is  even  an  article  of  commerce  with  the 
neighboring  countries,  where  salt  is  a  rarity.  There  are  also 
pools  which  are  covered  with  natron,  an  alkali  of  grayish  color, 
used  in  the  bleaching  of  linen  and  in  the  manufacture  of  glass 
and  soap. 

Vegetables.  —  Although  certain  portions  of  the  desert,  abso- 
lutely waste  and  barren,  do  not  nourish  a  single  plant,  there  are 
many  others  whose  surface  is  covered  in  winter  and  spring  with 
shrubs,  and  a  certain  quantity  of  grass,  which  sustain  the  cattle 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  oases.  Elsewhere  are  found  thickets  of 
gum  trees,  or  senna,  a  medicinal  plant,  whose  leaves,  exported  in 
considerable  quantities  into  other  countries,  furnish  a  very  mild 
cathartic,  but  of  a  disagreeable  odor,  and  much  more  in  use  for- 
merly than  at  the  present  time. 

In  the  oases,  leguminous  plants,  among  others  very  tender  and 
excellent  onions,  find  a  congenial  soil ;  but  cereals  do  not  seem  to 
thrive.  Cultivation  is  more  particularly  given  to  fruit  trees  — 
figs,  pomegranates,  apricots,  &c.,  and  above  all,  the  date  tree, 
which  constitutes  the  principal  wealth  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Sahara.  Its  hard  and  incorruptible  wood  answers  for  building 
purposes;  the  leaves,  macerated  in  water,  acquire  a  flexibility 
which'  enables  them  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  panniers 
and  baskets ;  of  the  fibrous  network  which  envelops  the  palms, 
and  attaches  them  to  the  trunk,  very  strong  ropes  are  made, 
which  are  used  for  fettering  the  camels  ;  the  stones  of  the  dates 
are  ground,  and  given  to  the  sheep  and  camels,  to  fatten  them ; 
and  the  sap,  extracted  from  the  tree  by  means  of  incisions 
made  in  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk,  furnishes  a  mild  and  very 
agreeable  liquor.  The  fruit,  with  w^hich  my  readers  are  familiar, 
18* 


I. 


210  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

whether  fresh  or  dried,  reduced  to  powder,  or  in  a  compact  mass, 
which  may  be  preserved  many  years  without  detriment,  serves 
for  the  maintenance  of  extremely  numerous  populations.  Even 
the  animals  of  the  desert,  dogs  and  horses  included,  can  subsist  on 
dates.  Nevertheless,  this  fruit,  substantial  as  it  is,  is  inferior  to 
the  cereals,  and  soon  surfeits  those  who  have  nothing  else  to  eat. 
To  vary  this  monotony,  it  is  cooked  in  oil  or  butter,  and  mixed 
with  onions  and  other  vegetables ;  it  is  alternated  as  often  as 
possible  by  the  favorite  dish  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  desert — - 
a  ragout  of  locusts  boiled  in  water,  with  salt. 

The  date  trees  of  the  oases  are  raised  by  means  of  sprouts, 
which  in  30  years  attain  their  complete  development.  The  tree 
then  continues  during  70  years  in  full  bearing  condition,  and 
yields  annually  from  15  to  20  clusters  of  15  or  16  pounds  weight 
each,  which  constitutes  an  average  of  more  than  200  pounds 
a  plant.  This  cultivation  is  of  such  vital  importance  to  the  pop- 
ulations of  these  countries,  that  whenever  an  individual  wishes  to 
plant  palm  trees,  or  to  form  a  garden,  as  they  term  it,  in  the 
oases,  he  calls  in  the  assistance  of  his  neighbors,  to  whom,  on  a 
similar  occasion,  he  renders  the  like  service.  They  remove  the 
sand,  in  order  that  the  roots  of  the  plant  may  reach  the  damp  soil, 
then  encompass  it  with  a  trench,  into  which  they  pour  the  water 
necessary  to  keep  the  earth  always  properly  moistened,  or  conduct 
thither  by  canals  the  waters  of  the  neighboring  springs  at  the 
time  when,  according  to  the  regulations  of  the  community,  the 
proprietor's  turn  has  arrived  for  profiting  by  these  fertilizing 
irrigations. 

Animals.  —  In  most  books  written  for  the  young,  lions  are  dis- 
tinguished as  the  inhabitants  of  the  desert.  But  they  never  quit 
the  wooded  mountains  of  the  Atlas  to  descend  into  the  sandy 
plain,  where  the  only  species  of  noxious  animals  that  are  met 
with  are  vipers  and  scorpions.  Neither  do  the  gazelle,  the  ante- 
lope, the  ostrich,  nor  the  wild  ass  often  venture  farther  than  the 
extreme  limits  of  the  desert.  The  only  animal  truly  indigenous 
in  the  sandy  region  is  the  schoh,  a  great  lizard,  more  than  a  foot 
and  a  half  in  length,  with  a  large  and  heavy  tail,  which  greatly 
retards  its  progress.  This  animal  supplies  travellers  with  an 
agreeable  nutriment,  whose  flavor  is  similar  to  that  of  the  kid. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  211 

It  hides  in  the  very  dry  sand,  and  the  Arabs  say  that  a  single 
drop  of  water  is  sufficient  to  extinguish  its  hfe.  The  ugly  cha- 
meleon also  exists  unmolested  in  the  oases,  where  it  is  very 
common. 

'  The  domestic  animals  are  the  camel,  the  sheep,  the  goat,  and 
the  horse.  The  Arabs  of  the  Sahara  devote  themselves  with 
ardor  to  the  rearing  of  horses^  whose  species  they  carefully  seek 
to  preserve  and  ameliorate.  The  love  of  this  noble  animal  seems 
to  be  innate  in  the  blood  of  the  Arab.  It  is  the  companion  in 
arms  and  the  friend  of  the  chief  of  the  tent;  it  is  one  of  the 
family  retainers,  and  it  is  exalted  in  song  and  in  the  recitals  of 
the  warriors.  As  the  tribes  pf  the  Sahara  only  design  their 
horses  for  war  or  for  the  race,  they  are  vastly  superior  to  the 
horses  of  the  Atlas,  and  it  is  among  them  that  the  barb  race  have 
preserved  all  the  qualities  of  elegance,  docility,  and  fleetness 
which  are  universally  admitted  to  characterize  it.  The  mares  are 
especially  prized  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Sahara. 

But  the  marvel  of  the  desert  is  the  species  of  camel  known 
by  the  name  of  mahari,  or  running  camel;  the  heart  of  the 
Sahara  is  alone  adapted  to  its  organization,  which  is  in  perfect 
harmony  with  the  country  where  the  wisdom  and  goodness 
of  God  have  placed  it.  Accustomed  to  the  dried  grass  of  the 
sands,  it  would  gain  nothing  if  transported  to  more  abundant 
pasturage.  It  is  constituted  both  for  the  sterility  and  the  heat 
of  the  desert,  and  could  not  exist  elsewhere.  It  is  higher  than 
the  camel ;  its  neck  is  remarkably  long,  its  legs  slender  and 
delicate.  Its  sagacity  and  fidelity  are  equal  to  those  of  the  dog, 
and  its  swiftness  superior  to  that  of  the  horse.  A  good  mahari 
can  accomplish,  it  is  said,  from  28  to  32  leagues,  for  many  con- 
secutive days. 

The  manner  of  raising  it  is  very  curious.  As  soon  as  it  is  bom, 
it  is  buried  up  to  its  middle  in  fine  sand,  so  that  the  w^eight  of  its 
body  may  not  bend  its  legs ;  during  the  first  14  days  it  is  nour- 
ished chiefly  with  butter  and  milk.  At  the  end  of  a  month,  the 
animal  is  allowed  to  run ;  a  ring  is  passed  through  its  nose,  and 
its  education  commences.  When  skilfully  trained,  it  acquires 
an  extraordinary  sagacity.  If  the  w^arrior  falls  in  a  combat,  the 
faithful  courser  lies  down  by  his  side,  as  if  to  invite  him  to  mount 


212  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

upon  his  back ;  but  if  his  master  remains  motionless,  the  mahari 
hastens  back  to  the  village  to  show  the  empty  saddle  to  the  fam- 
ily, thenceforth  deprived  of  their  chief.  A  good  mahari  is  worth 
10  or  15  times  as  much  as  an  ordinary  or  carrier  camel. 

Population,  —  The  population  of  the  Great  Desert  is  composed 
of  two  entirely  distinct  races — the  Berbers,  who  are  indigenous, 
and  the  Arabs,  who  have  come  thither  from  abroad.  The  former 
constitute  the  permanent  portion  of  the  population ;  the  men  are 
occupied  in  cultivating  the  gardens,  whilst  the  women  weave 
burnos  and  other  garments  of  wool.  The  Arabs,  true  to  their 
vagrant  instincts,  traverse  the  desert  with  their  flocks,  undertake 
the  transportation  of  the  merchandise  of  the  Soudan  or  Atlas,  and 
escort  or  plunder  caravans.  They  pass  the  winter  and  the  spring 
in  the  plains  of  the  desert,  which,  during  this  portion  of  the  year, 
afford  them  at  the  same  time  pasturage  and  water.  They  remain 
usually  only  three  or  four  days  in  the  same  place,  and  strike  their 
tents  as  soon  as  the  surrounding  vegetation  is  exhausted.  At  the 
end  of  spring  they  enter  the  oases,  load  their  camels  with  dates 
and  woollen  garments,  proceed  towards  the  north  with  their  wives, 
children,  and  flocks,  reach  the  Tell,  (from  tellus,  in  Latin,  fertile 
country,)  or  country  of  the  Atlas,  at  the  time  of  harvest,  and  there 
supply  themselves  with  grains  at  the  lowest  possible  price.  They 
pass  the  summer  beyond  the  Atlas,  exchanging  dates  and  woollen 
fabrics,  procured  from  the  oases,  for  barley,  raw  wool,  sheep,  and 
butter.  The  fields,  stripped  of  the  harvest  which  covered  them, 
are  abandoned  to  the  herds  of  the  desert,  which  enrich  the  soil 
that  yields  them  nourishment.  The  last  days  of  summer  are 
the  signal  of  departure,  and  the  caravan  finds  itself  again  in  the 
oasis  towards  the  end  of  October,  when  the  dates  have  ripened. 
With  its  assistance  the  inhabitants  gather  them,  and  store  them 
in  the  interior  of  their  houses.  Another  month  is  spent  in  barter- 
ing the  corn  and  raw  wool,  brought  from  the  Tell,  for  the  garden 
dates  and  the  woollen  articles  fabricated  by  the  women  of  the 
village.  After  this  the  nomadic  tribe  reenters  the  desert,  in 
order  to  let  its  flocks  graze,  until  the  time  when  the  summer  will 
again  give  rise  to  the  same  journeyings  and  the  same  labors. 
After  the  date  gathering,  a  sack  of  corn  is  worth  in  the  Sahara 
two  sacks  of  dates,  whilst  in  the  Tell,  at  the  time  of  the  com  gath- 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA,  213 

ering,  a  sack  of  dates  is  worth  two  sacks  of  corn.  This  is,  then, 
a  commerce  in  which  tlie  Arab  realizes  very  handsome  profits. 
But  in  order  to  prosecute  this  traffic,  the  populations  of  the 
Sahara  are  necessarily  dependent  on  the  masters  of  the  Atlas, 
whoever  they  may  be ;  thus  they  say  proverbially,  "  The  land  of 
the  Tell  is  our  mother ;  he  who  espouses  her  is  our  father ; "  and 
consequently  they  are  eager  to  pay  him  tribute. 

The  centre  of  the  desert  is  occupied  by  the  great  Berber  nations 
of  the  Tuaricks,  a  part  of  whom  lead  a  pastoral  life,  while  the  rest 
devote  themselves  to  commerce  and  plunder,  sparing  only  the 
caravans,  which  consent  to  pay  them  for  acting  as  their  escort. 
The  Tihhoos,  established  at  the  east,  are  likewise  Berbers,  but 
almost  as  black  as  the  negroes  of  the  south.  They  carry  on  a 
commerce  of  salt  and  natron,  of  which  their  country  contains  an 
abundance ;  but  like  the  Tuaricks,  with  whom  they  are  incessantly 
at  war,  their  principal  commerce  is  that  of  the  slaves  whom  they 
buy  or  steal  from  the  negroes  of  the  Soudan.  ■     •    > 

2.  Plain  of  Senegambia.  —  This  immense  plain,  situated 
west  of  the  Kong  Mountains,  derives  its  name  from  the  two  most 
important  of  its  rivers,  (the  Senegal  and  the  Gambia.)  It  is  ter- 
minated at  the  west  by  Cape  Verd,  the  most  western  point  of  the 
ancient  continent,  so  called  by  the  Portuguese  navigator  Fernandez, 
who,  after  having  perseveringly  threaded  the  arid  coast,  was  en- 
chanted with  the  verdant  aspect  which  the  baobabs  and  other 
trees  give  to  the  little  sandy  peninsula,  at  the  extremity  of  which 
is  found  this  celebrated  cape. 

Aspect.  —  The  coasts  of  Senegambia  are  generally  flat  and  low, 
usually  bordered  by  the  gloomy  vegetation  of  the  mangroves  — 
small  trees  which  grow  spontaneously  in  the  water  of  the  sea,  and 
are  often  covered  with  oysters,  which,  attaching  themselves  to 
their  trunk,  give  them  a  very  singular  appearance.  In  the  in- 
terior the  aspect  of  the  country  is  much  more  varied;  there  are 
found  rich  plains,  ponds,  and  magnificent  forests  containing  many 
varieties  of  trees.  After  the  rains  the  ground  is  every  where 
covered  with  thick  grass,  which  grows  to  the  height  of  a  man. 
When  it  is  withered  by  the  heat,  the  negroes  generally  set  it 
on  fire,  in  order  thus  to  destroy  many  noxious  reptiles  and 
insects. 


214  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

Climate.  —  In  Senegambia,  as  in  Soudan,  there  are  but  two 
seasons  —  the  dry  and  the  rainy.  As  soon  as  the  latter  has  ceased, 
the  rays  of  a  burning  sun  cause  the  soil  and  the  remains  of  vege- 
table matter  to  exhale  an  excessively  dangerous  miasma,  which 
produces  fevers,  very  often  fatal,  especially  among  the  newly- 
arrived  Europeans.  In  the  dry  season  the  heat  is  very  power- 
ful. During  the  day,  from  ten  o'clock  until  three,  such  a  pro- 
found silence  reigns,  that  nature  seems  struck  with  death ;  night, 
on  the  contrary,  is  the  time  for  motion,  for  mirth,  and  for  dancing. 
Near  the  coasts,  however,  the  breezes  wafted  from  the  sea  some- 
what temper  the  heat.  But  this  ceases  to  be  the  case  after  the 
harmattan  begins  to  blow  —  a  violent  wind  proceeding  from  the 
north-east,  or  from  the  Great  Desert.  The  air  is  then  filled  with 
sand  and  dust.  Every  thing  rapidly  withers ;  timbers  bend,  and 
creakings  are  heard  in  every  house  ;  the  skin  cracks,  and  finally 
bursts,  unless  the  precaution  is  taken  to  anoint  the  body  with 
oil.  Journeys  are,  however,  facilitated  by  it,  as  the  pools  of  water 
and  marshes,  being  speedily  dried  up  by  the  harmattan,  no  longer 
present  obstacles  to  the  traveller. 

The  minerals  are  iron  and  gold;  silver  in  Senegambia  pos- 
sesses almost  as  much  value  as  gold ;  salt  is  both  rare  and  expen- 
sive, and  children,  when  they  can  procure  it,  actually  regale  them- 
selves on  it,  as  they  would  in  other  countries  upon  a  lump  of 
sugar. 

Vegetables.  —  The  vegetation  is  extremely  rich  and  abundant 
in  Senegambia.  There  grow  the  colossus  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, the  haobah,  fine  tamarind  trees,  gigantic  canol  or  down  trees, 
and  various  species  of  palms,  among  others  that  from  which  is 
obtained  a  liquor  known  by  the  name  o^ palm  wine,  and  which  is 
the  delight  of  the  negroes.  It  is  no  very  easy  matter  to  procure 
it,  for  it  is  necessary  to  climb  to  the  top  of  the  tree  often  more 
than  80  feet  in  height.  For  this  purpose  the  negroes  make  a 
hoop  of  the  palm  branches  tempered  by  fire.  These  hoops  are 
large  enough  to  surround  the  man  and  the  tree,  leaving  between 
them  a  space  of  at  least  two  iaei.  The  negro  supports  his  back 
against  the  hoop,  and  his  feet  against  the  tree,  raising  them  suc- 
cessively, while  with  his  hands  he  lifts  the  hoop,  and  so  by  de- 
grees attains  the  top.     Then,  with  a  sharp  iron  instrument,  he 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AFRICA.  215 

makes  an  incision  in  the  tree,  near  the  place  where  the  fruit 
grows,  and  inserts  leaves  to  serve  as  a  conduit  for  the  sap,  which 
falls  drop  by  drop  into  a  calabash  (a  kind  of  gourd)  suspended 
from  the  nearest  branches. 

A  good  palm  tree  commonly  yields  10  or  12  pints  of  liquor. 
When  first  extracted  from  the  tree,  this  wine  consists  of  a  mild, 
white  beverage,  more  or  less  sweet,  slightly  acidulated,  sparkling, 
and  somewhat  similar  to  champagne.  The  Europeans  then  find 
it  delicious ;  it  does  not  affect  the  head,  unless  imbibed  in  great 
quantities,  and  it  is  very  refreshing.  After  twenty-four  houfs  it 
ferments  and  becomes  sour.  It  is  then  intoxicating,  and  it  is 
in  that  state  that  the  negroes  prefer  to  drink  it.  At  the  end  of 
three  or  four  days,  it  is  nothing  more  than  bad  vinegar. 

But  of  all  the  vegetable  products  of  this  country,  the  two  most 
hnportant  to  be  known,  on  account  of  their  commercial  value,  are 
the  arachis  and  the  gum.  The  arachis  is  an  annual  plant  (now 
introduced  into  France)  which  grows  spontaneously  on  the  borders 
of  the  Senegal,  to  a  height  of  one  or  two  feet.  It  is  a  singular 
fact  that  immediately  after  the  fructification  of  the  flower,  it  in- 
clines towards  the  earth,  and  in  order  to  ripen,  its  seeds  penetrate 
a  little  below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  pods  contain  one,  two, 
or  three  nuts,  of  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut.  These  kernels,  when 
fresh,  have  a  sweet  flavor,  which  may  be  compared  to  that  of 
almonds  or  hazel  nuts ;  this  taste  becomes  still  more  agreeable 
when  they  have  been  slightly  roasted.  The  earth  nuts  (as  they 
are  called)  are  highly  relished  by  the  negroes,  who  carry  them 
on  all  their  journeys.  But  what  gives  to  this  production  its 
principal  value  is  the  rich  and  extremely  sweet  oil  which  is  ex- 
tracted from  its  kernels.  This  oil,  which  is  very  much  appreciated, 
is  already  sold  in  considerable  quantities  in  our  markets,  and 
might  be  rendered  an  important  resource  to  the  European  colo- 
nies of  Senegambia. 

The  species  of  acacia  which  produces  the  gum  grows  isolated 
in  certain  elevated  portions  of  the  desert,  for  it  requires  a  dry 
and  sandy  soil ;  but  it  is  found  in  especial  abundance  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Upper  Senegal.  It  is  from  thence  almost  exclusively 
that  the  gum  is  exported  to  us,  which  we  continue  to  call  gum 
arahic  because  it  was  formerly  obtained  wholly  from  Arabia. 


216  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

The  gum  tree  is  a  small,  thorny  evergreen.  The  gum,  oozing 
through  the  bark,  and  thickening  in  the  sun,  resembles  a  half 
opened  apricot;  it  has  likewise  somewhat  the  same  taste  and 
flavor.  It  is  often,  also,  the  only  provision  of  the  tribes  who 
wander  in  the  interior  of  these  countries.  There  are  two  gather- 
ings of  gum  every  year,  in  March  and  in  December ;  the  latter  is 
the  most  considerable  and  the  most  important.  The  gum  trees 
belong  to  no  person  in  particular,  and  all  the  free  Moors  can  send 
their  captives  to  the  gathering.  The  slaves  designed  for  this 
labor  usually  proceed  under  the  direction  of  marabov^,  or  Ma- 
hometan priests,  who  voluntarily  engage  in  commerce.  Arrived 
at  the  gum  trees,  they  first  construct  themselves  a  house  ;  each  is 
provided  with  a  milch  cow  and  two  leather  sacks.  Every  morn- 
ing the  slaves  fill  one  of  these  sacks  with  water,  and  armed  with 
a  long  cloven  pole,  go  in  search  of  the  gum.  The  acacias  being 
very  thorny,  the  pole  is  used  for  detaching  from  the  high  branches 
the  lumps  which  they  could  not  reach  with  the  hand.  As  fast  as 
the  slaves  collect  it  they  put  it  into  their  empty  sack.  When  it 
is  abundant  each  one  may  amass  as  much  as  six  pounds  a  day. 
After  accumulating  a  certain  quantity  they  bury  it  in  the  earth, 
covering  it  with  ox  hides  and  straw,  and  carefully  trampling  down 
the  soil  above  it,  in  order  that  the  hiding-place  may  not  be  dis- 
covered by  other  Moors,  who  would  not  fail  to  appropriate  the 
whole  of  it. 

After  the  gathering,  camels  and  oxen  transport  the  gum  in 
great  leather  sacks  to  the  ports^  that  is,  to  the  markets,  wdiere,  on 
the  borders  of  the  river,  the  different  Moor  tribes  await  the  ar- 
rival of  the  European  merchants.  The  latter,  ascending  the 
Senegal,  bring  glass  ware,  tobacco,  arms,  utensils,  and  especially 
the  celebrated  pieces  of  cotton,  known  by  the  name  of  guineas^ 
which  serve  for  the  principal  medium  of  exchange,  or  money,  in 
these  countries.  Then  begin  interminable  palavers^  the  universal 
passion  of  the  African  nation ;  in  these  conferences  or  discussions 
each  seeks  to  take  advantage  of  the  other,  but  the  Moor  usually 
comes  off  conqueror,  the  European  merchants,  from  self-interest, 
preferring  to  buy  at  a  disadvantage,  rather  than  go  back  empty- 
handed. 

The  animals  are  already  mostly  known  to  us  —  lions,  elephants, 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  217 

leopards,  monkeys,  gazelles,  ostriches,  parrots,  and  all  kinds  of 
small  birds  of  the  most  brilliant  plumage.  There  also  is  very 
frequently  encountered  a  species  of  stork,  whose  dazzling  white 
feathers  are  often  preferred  by  ladies  to  the  most  beautiful 
plumes  of  the  ostrich :  this  is  the  marabou,  so  called  on  account 


of  a  resemblance,  detected  by  the  Moors,  between  the  gravity  of 
its  attitude  and  the  deportment  of  a  Mussulman  friar.  The  mar- 
abou has  white  plumage,  with  a  dark  brown  mantle,  and  long 
gray  down  around  its  head.  Under  its  neck  hangs  a  kind  of 
membranous  bag,  resembling  a  sausage.  This  bird  makes  con- 
tinual war  against  serpents  and  noxious  insects,  and  conduces  to 
the  salubrity  of  the  air,  by  purging  the  country  of  the  dead  ani- 
mals abandoned  to  the  sewers.  Thus,  as  its  services  are  highly 
appreciated,  and  as  it  is  never  molested,  it  has  become  very 
familiar.  It  voluntarily  approaches  dwellings,  and  seizes  with- 
out ceremony  whatever  suits  its  inclination.  It  is,  moreover, 
gluttonous,  and  when  satiated  with  food,  it  sleeps  in  an  upright 
position,  standing  motionless  on  one  foot  for  whole  hours,  on  the 
borders  of  some  marsh. 

The  population  is  composed,  first,  of  Moors,  men  of  the  white 
race,  but  embrowned  by  the  climate,  whom  commercial  interests 
19 


218  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

attract  to  the  northern  part  of  Senegambia.  They  are  very  zeal- 
ous Mahometans.  There  are  likewise  Mandingoes,  skilful  and 
cunning  traders,  of  whom  we  have  already  spoken,  and  Tolops, 
who  are  considered  the  blackest  and  handsomest  of  negroes.  The 
Foulahs^  or  Peules,  with  whom  we  are  also  acquainted,  and  which 
seem  to  be  an  intermedial  race  between  the  Moors  and  the  ne- 
groes, are  only  partly  Mahometans ;  and  among  this  people  the 
Christian  missionaries  find  the  easiest  access,  while,  owing  to  pre- 
judices, the  Mandingoes  and  Yolops  are  almost  inaccessible. 

Three  European  nations  possess  colonies  in  this  country. 
France  has  establishments  at  the  north,  especially  at  the  mouth, 
and  on  the  borders  of  the  Senegal ;  England,  farther  south,  on 
the  borders  of  the  Gambia;  and  Portugal,  still  farther  south,  on  the 
borders  of  another  river,  the  Rio  Grande.  The  number  of  Euro- 
peans estabUshed  in  these  different  settlements,  or  holding  garri- 
son there,  is  inconsiderable ;  nevertheless,  their  influence  extends 
to  a  distance,  over  a  number  of  the  neighboring  populations. 
These  colonists  enrich  themselves  by  a  very  active  barter  traffic 
with  the  negro  tribes  of  the  interior,  who  bring  them  not  only 
earthnuts  and  gum,  but  also  gold,  hides,  wax,  (for  bees  are  very 
abundant  throughout  Africa,)  and  finally  ostrich  or  marabou 
feathers. 

3.  Plain  or  Coast  op  Guinea.  —  This  coast  is  a  plain 
of  immense  length,  but  of  little  breadth,  except  at  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  between  the  Bays  of  Benin  and  Biafra, 
where  it  acquires  considerable  extent. 

The  aspect  is  generally  that  of  a  yellowish,  sandy,  and  arid 
plain,  interspersed  here  and  there  with  bushes  and  high  grass, 
among  which  coil  reptiles,  and  especially  serpents.  This  whole 
plain  is  sprinkled  in  a  most  singular  manner  by  termites'  nests, 
innumerable  constructions,  resembling  small  towns,  from  8  to  15 
feet  in  height.  Along  the  rivers  the  vegetation  presents  a  flour- 
ishing aspect ;  on  the  borders  of  the  sea  is  found  only  the  gloomy 
verdure  of  the  mangroves ;  but  as  one  recedes  from  the  shore, 
and  approaches  the  Kong  Mountains,  the  soil  is  covered  with  all 
the  luxury  of  tropical  vegetation.  Every  where  stretch  immense 
forests,  only  interrupted  at  intervals  to  make  room  for  the  habita- 
tions of  men. 


THE    CONTINENT    OF   AFRICA.  219 

The  climate  is  the  same  as  that  of  Senegambia  ;  it  is,  however, 
still  warmer  and  more  unhealthy  after  the  rainy  season. 

The  minerals  are  also  gold  and  iron. 

Vegetables.  —  As  in  all  the  countries  situated  in  the  torrid  zone, 
the  vegetation  is  of  extraordinary  richness  in  all  the  well-watered 
portions  of  Guinea.  The  forests  form  almost  impenetrable  thick- 
ets ;  on  all  sides  hang  festoons  of  flowers,  of  the  most  brilliant 
and  variegated  hues.  In  Guinea  are  found  cocoa  nut  and  banana 
trees,  pepper  plants,  oranges,  lemons,  and  pineapples,  which  grow 
even  in  the  uncultivated  regions  ;  sugar  canes,  with  which  the  na- 
tives even  feed  their  cattle ;  finally,  yams,  which  with  the  manioc 
and  the  millet  are  the  essential  food  of  the  negroes. 

But  among  all  the  remarkable  trees  of  the  coast  of  Guinea, 
none  is  of  more  importance  than  the  palm  of  Guinea,  or  ebais, 
which  the  negroes  call  their  friend,  on  account  of  the  various 
resources  which  it  furnishes  them.  They  use  especially  the 
leaves,  of  which  they  make  baskets  and  cloth,  and  the  fruits,  from 
which  they  extract  the  palm  oil.  As  soon  as  they  are  ripe,  they 
place  them  on  the  ground  in  troughs ;  the  negroes,  shod  with 
wooden  sandals,  then  trample  on  them  for  a  long  time.  They 
separate  the  oil,  and  purify  it  by  causing  it  to  undergo,  over  the 
fire,  a  slight  evaporation,  and  afterwards  despatch  it  to  a  distance 
in  casks.  The  palm  oil  is  yellowish,  and  almost  solid ;  it  has  the 
consistency  of  butter,  and  exhales  a  slight  odor  of  iris.  Consid- 
erable quantities  of  it  are  exported  to  Europe,  and  especially  to 
England,  where  it  is  used  in  the  composition  of  certain  soaps. 
This  palm  oil  has  long  been  confounded  with  the  galaam  butter, 
which  is  the  product  of  the  shea,  or  butter  tree. 

The  animals  of  Guinea  are  the  same  as  those  of  Southern  Af- 
rica —  lions,  tigers,  elephants,  monkeys,  &c. ;  all  kinds  of  birds, 
of  magnificent  colors,  but  which  do  not  sing.  Parrots,  of  various 
species,  fly  in  companies,  and  cause  great  havoc  in  the  fields  ; 
boas,  and  a  great  number  of  other  serpents  concealed  in  the  tall 
grass,  are  a  formidable  enemy  to  travellers.  We  have  already 
spoken  of  the  termites  and  their  ravages  :  red  and  black  ants  in- 
fest certain  regions  ;  flies  and  gnats  are  also  a  veritable  torment ; 
one  is  obliged  to  employ  young  slaves  to  drive  away  the  flies  dur- 
ing his  meals ;  and  the  gnats  would  effectually  banish  sleep,  if  they 


220 


THE   GEOGRAPHY    OP   NATURE. 


were  not  kept  at  a  distance  by  mosquito  bars,  or  nets  of  gauze, 
which  are  spread  during  the  night  over  the  beds. 

The  population  is  composed  of  blacks  —  almost  all  idolaters, 
and  abandoned  to  the  vices  which  fetishism  encourages.  No- 
where, perhaps,  does  this  brutish  religion  produce  such  grievous 
effects.  Thoi  fetishes,  according  to  the  belief  of  the  negroes,  are 
inferior  divinities,  whom  the  supreme  God  has  ordained  over  men 
to  render  him  an  account  of  their  conduct.  These  jealous,  vin- 
dictive, capricious  spirits  never  cease  to  exercise  their  malice 
against  men.  In  order  to  guard  themselves  from  their  continual 
attacks,  the  negro  suspends  over  the  entrance  of  his  tent  charms 
of  every  description,  —  feathers,  gewgaws,  bits  of  sculptured 
wood,  fragments  of  vases,  horns,  &c., —  at  the  same  time  that  he 
covers  his  body  with  gris-gris,  or  scraps  of  paper  on  which  are 


A  Negro  with  Fetishes. 


inscribed  sentences  serving  for  amulets.  Before  every  meal  he 
must  first  assign  a  portion  of  it  to  the  fetish,  to  avert  his  anger. 
At  the  first  intimation  on  the  part  of  the  priests,  goats,  sheep, 
and  cows  are  offered  as  sacrifices  to  the  fetish,  whom  he  asserts 
to  be  offended.  Many  parents  devote  their  children  to  such 
an  idol.  The  young  people,  thus  consecrated,  form  associa- 
tions which  often  assemble  to  practise  the  most  licentious  dan- 
cing, and  to  commit  depredations  in  the  vicinity.    Licentiousness, 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AFRICA.  221 

drunkenness,  and  cruelty  are  the  sad  attendants  of  fetishism. 
The  most  intuitive  family  affections  are  almost  stifled.  A  de- 
formed child  is  put  to  death  at  its  birth,  or  suffered  to  perish  pro- 
tractedly of  hunger ;  twins  are  also  brutally  slaughtered  ;  almost 
every  where  the  children  are  liable  to  be  carried  away  and  offered 
as  sacrifices  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  rain,  or  some  similar 
favor.  Polygamy  reigns  universally ;  it  robs  marriage  of  all  its 
sanctity,  and  is  completely  subversive  of  family  order.  The 
chiefs  have  as  many  wives  as  they  can  buy  and  support ;  to  fix 
one's  eyes  upon  them  when  they  go  abroad  is  among  some  of 
these  tribes  a  capital  offence. 

The  Christians  of  Europe  and  America  had  great  obligations 
to  discharge  towards  these  unfortunate  populations  of  Guinea, 
whom  their  ancestors  have  so  long  decimated  and  demoralized  by 
the  abominable  slave  trade,  which  has  nowhere  been  more  active 
or  more  cruel.  Therefore,  since  the  commencement  of  this  cen- 
tury, the  different  churches  have  emulated  each  other  in  efforts  to 
diffuse  among  them  the  blessing  of  the  gospel,  and  of  a  truly 
Christian  civilization.  We  design  briefly  to  mention  what  has 
been  undertaken  in  each  portion  of  this  country,  which  forms  a 
long  belt  of  more  than  800  leagues. 

1.  On  the  beautiful  and  fertile  coast  of  Sierra  Leone,  (moun- 
tain of  lions,)  west  of  the  Mountains  of  Kong,  the  charity  of  the 
English  Christians  is  most  admirably  exemplified.  At  their  solici- 
tation the  English  government  consented  to  deposit  there  the  car- 
goes of  slaves  whom  its  cruisers  rescue  in  great  numbers  from  the 
slave  ships  ;  and  there  these  unfortunates  find,  on  their  arrival, 
missionaries  and  schools  to  initiate  them  in  the  benefits  of  Chris- 
tian civilization.  Nothing  could  at  first  be  more  disorderly  and 
vicious  than  these  slaves,  who  belonged  to  more  than  30  different 
nations,  and  could  not  even  comprehend  each  other's  language. 
But  now,  this  is  an  exceedingly  flourishing  colony,  which  enjoys  a 
regular  administration,  organizes  annual  exhibitions  of  its  pro- 
ducts, and  exercises  an  extremely  pacific  and  valuable  influence 
over  all  the  neighboring  colonies.  Many  churches  are  established 
there,  in  part  of  which  negro  pastors  officiate,  some  of  Avhom  are 
very  eloquent,  having  been  instructed  and  prepared  for  preaching 
in  the  seminaries  of  the  colony.  There  are  also  a  great  number  of 
19* 


222  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

schools,  both  for  boys  and  girls.  From  Sierra  Leone  the  gospel 
is  carried  into  the  interior  of  Africa  by  the  missionaries,  and 
especially  by  the  former  slaves,  who  return  into  their  native 
country. 

South-east  of  Sierra  Leone  stretches  the  Grain  or  Pepper 
Coast,  better  known  under  the  name  of  Liberia,  (free  country.) 
Thither  a  society  of  American  Christians  annually  transport  from 
the  United  States  a  certain  number  of  blacks,  emancipated  from 
slavery.  Liberia  now  forms  an  independent  republic,  recognized 
by  the  principal  powers  of  Europe.  By  placing  themselves  un- 
der the  protection  of  this  republic,  all  the  neighboring  tribes  have 
abolished  the  slave  trade,  and  have  pledged  themselves  never  to 
commence  war  without  first  submitting  their  difficulties  to  the 
authorities  of  Liberia.  There  are  in  this  territory  thirty  churches, 
substantially  built  of  stone,  and  a  great  number  of  schools. 

Farther  east  lies  the  Ivory  Coast,  resorted  to  for  its  ivory. 
There  also,  near  Cape  Palmas,  we  find  another  more  recent 
American  colony,  into  which  is  admitted  every  negro  who  con- 
sents to  renounce  the  use  of  intoxicating  liquor,  that  poison  so 
fatal  to  their  race.  This  colony  of  Cape  Palmas,  although  less 
numerous  than  the  preceding,  already  presents  satisfactory  re- 
sults. 

Beyond  extends  the  fertile  but  very  unhealthy  coast  denom- 
inated Gold  Coast,  on  account  of  the  great  quantity  of  this 
metal  which  was  thence  obtained.  It  was  this  coast  that  fur- 
nished the  English  with  the  material  for  their  first  gold  pieces, 
which  have  consequently  always  preserved  the  name  of  guineas. 
The  English,  Danes,  Dutch,  and  French  possess  difi*erent  estab- 
lishments on  these  shores,  whence  ivory,  pepper,  and  palm  oil  are 
also  procured.  English  missionaries  at  Cape  Coast  Castle,  and 
missionaries  from  Basle,  at  Accra,  have  founded  flourishing 
churches,  and  thence  have  commenced  in  the  neighboring  kingdom 
of  the  Ashantees  the  evangelizing  labors  to  which  we  have  already 
alluded.  The  terrible  African  fever  has  dealt  severely  with  these 
zealous  servants  of  God.  The  institution  of  the  missions  of  Basle, 
for  example,  lost  by  it  eight  missionaries  in  eight  years ;  and  not- 
withstanding this,  the  undertaking  has  not  been  for  a  moment 
interrupted.     However,  now  that  they  are  assisted  in  the  most 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  223 

laborious  of  their  manual  labors  by  emancipated  negroes,  less 
exposed  than  themselves  to  the  malignant  attacks  of  the  cUmate, 
the  mortality  is  not  so  great.  "  Let  a  thousand  missionaries 
perish,  rather  than  abandon  Africa."  Such  was  the  epitaph 
which  one  of  them  gave  directions  to  have  inscribed  on  his  tomb- 
stone, at  the  time  when  he  quitted  America,  his  country,  to  estab- 
lish himself  on  the  African  shores.  Three  months  after  his 
landing  he  was  no  more. 

Still  farther  east  is  the  Slave  Ooast,  whose  name  recalls  the 
species  of  commerce  and  iniquity  which  is  there  perpetrated. 
There  is  found  the  famous  kingdom  of  Dahomey,  which  is  now 
the  chief  centre  of  the  trade,  and  has  become  celebrated  through 
the  terrible  cruelties  of  which  it  is  the  theatre.  The  king  en- 
joys absolute  power ;  the  police  is  thoroughly  organized,  the 
roads  good,  the  cultivation  very  extensive,  and  industry  progres- 
sive, but  on  all  occasions  torrents  of  blood  are  shed.  The  king, 
Gulzo,  is  a  man  hunter,  and  every  year  he  issues  from  his  palace, 
without  announcing  beforehand  which  colony  he  has  devoted 
to  ruin.  The  band  of  black  hunters,  having  gained  their  destina- 
tion, massacre  the  old  men  and  women,  crush  tender  infants 
against  the  stones,  set  fire  to  the  villages,  and  then  depart,  con- 
veying away  the  young  men  and  girls,  some  of  whom  are  re- 
served for  the  trade  and  others  for  human  sacrifices ;  for  there 
are  no  entertainments,  no  festivals,  in  which  the  blood  of  great 
numbers  of  unfortunate  prisoners  is  not  shed.  And  strange  as 
it  may  seem,  nearly  half  of  his  savage  army  is  composed  of 
admirably  disciplined  regiments  of  women.  These  sanguinaiy 
manners  are  naturally  allied  to  the  grossest  fetishism.  The  tiger 
is  the  great  fetish  of  Dahomey  ;  but  serpents,  carefully  nourished 
in  certain  temples,  are  also  worshipped,  before  which  every  one 
prostrates  himself,  kissing  the  dust.  English  missionaries  have, 
however,  established  themselves  in  the  midst  of  these  depraved 
populations,  and  are  not  without  hopes  of  obtaining  success 
among  them. 

The  Coast  of  Benin\  still  more  unhealthy,  has  no  missionaries, 
and  is  horribly  ravaged  by  the  trade. 

On   the    Coast  of   Calabar,  south  of  the  preceding,  French 


224  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

Catholic  missionaries  have  recently  founded  an  important  sta- 
tion near  the  River  Gaboon^  by  the  side  of  an  American  Prot- 
estant mission.  Both  have,  however,  but  just  commenced  their 
labors. 

4.  Plain  of  Egypt,  or  Valley  of  the  Nile. —  Egypt  is 
situated  at  the  north-east  of  the  African  Continent.  Properly 
speaking,  this  is  only  a  narrow  valley,  which  follows  all  the  wind- 
ings of  the  river.  It  is,  so  to  speak,  a  ribbon  of  magnificent  ver- 
dure, from  one  to  four  leagues  in  width,  unrolling  itself  over  a 
length  of  nearly  3000  miles,  between  two  chains  of  small  and  ab- 
solutely arid  mountains,  whose  deserted  and  barren  aspect  serves 
to  enhance  so  much  the  more  the  rich  vegetation  of  the  valley. 
The  latter,  however,  widens  considerably  on  approaching  the  sea, 
where  it  forms  a  vast  and  fertile,  but  somewhat  marshy  plain, 
around  the  different  mouths,  or  Delta,  of  the  Nile.  Beyond  this 
valley  and  the  plain  of  the  Delta,  all  this  portion  of  Africa  is 
sandy  and  barren. 

Contrary  to  what  may  be  observed  in  all  the  other  valleys,  the 
banks  of  the  river  are  more  elevated  than  the  rest  of  the  soil, 
which  descends  in  a  perceptible  slope  in  proportion  as  one  recedes 
from  the  Nile.  In  consequence  of  this  inclination  of  the  banks, 
whenever  the  river  rises  in  any  degree  above  them,  it  diffuses 
itself  over  the  entire  surface,  and  inundates  the  whole  of  the  cul- 
tivated country.  The  rich  black  slime  which  it  spreads  over  the 
earth  serves  to  enrich  the  soil,  and  gradually  elevates  it,  although 
in  an  almost  imperceptible  manner,  so  that  towns,  which  were 
formerly  on  the  borders  of  the  sea  (Rosetta  and  Damietta)  are 
now  found  at  more  than  a  league's  distance  from  it,  whilst  in 
Upper  Egypt  many  temples  and  ancient  palaces  are  now  partly 
buried  or  completely  hidden  by  the  cultivated  land. 

Aspect.  —  Nothing  can  be  more  variable  than  the  aspect  of  the 
cultivable  soil  of  P^gypt.  First,  in  the  season  of  drought,  it  pre- 
sents a  completely  arid  surface,  even  fissured  with  broad  crevices, 
of  five  or  six  feet  in  depth.  Then,  in  the  month  of  July,  during 
the  inundation,  which  lasts  three  months,  the  whole  valley  resem- 
bles an  immense  lake,  sprinkled  with  groups  of  trees  and  vil- 
lages, built  on  the  heights.     At  the  end  of  this  time  the  water 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  225 

retreats  ;  by  January  it  has  abandoned  the  valley  and  the  innu- 
merable canals  wliich  intersect  it  in  every  direction,  and  only  a 
black,  slimy  soil  remains,  in  which  the  husbandman  hastens  to 
deposit  the  seed,  the  hope  of  the  future  harvest.  Often,  indeed, 
the  seed  (the  rice,  for  instance)  is  sown  before  the  waters  have 
completely  disappeared  from  the  fields ;  and  hence  the  expression 
in  the  Bible,  (Eccles.  xi.  1,)  "  Cast  thy  bread  upon  the  waters, 
for  thou  shaltfind  it  after  many  days^^  The  period  of  vegetation 
follows  almost  immediately,  and  the  whole  country  is  covered 
with  immense  sheets  of  verdure  and  ripening  com. 

Climate.  —  Egypt  has  but  two  seasons  —  the  spring,  or  the  cool 
season,  which  lasts  from  December  until  February,  and  the  sum- 
mer, or  hot  season,  wliich  continues  all  the  rest  of  the  year. 
There  is  literally  no  rainy  season ;  for  in  this  country  so  rarely  do 
the  clouds  diffuse  water,  that  it  is  scarcely  too  much  to  assert 
that  it  never  rains.  The  soil  is  therefore  dependent,  during  the 
remainder  of  the  year,  upon  the  moisture  with  which  it  is  im- 
pregnated at  the  time  of  the  inundation.  The  dews,  it  is  true, 
are  very  abundant ;  but  on  the  banks  of  the  river  much  attention 
is  given  to  artificial  irrigation,  by  means  of  wheels,  or  buckets, 
plunged  into  the  Nile,  and  set  in  motion  either  by  men  or  oxen. 
When  the  soil  has  been  sufficiently  heated  by  the  action  of  the 
sun,  the  phenomenon  of  the  mirage  is  frequently  produced  in 
Egypt.  The  sky  is  usually  of  perfect  serenity,  and  the  nights 
rendered  cool  by  a  north  wind,  which  often  rises  at  sunset.  But 
this  is  completely  reversed,  when  the  kamsin  begins  to  blow. 
This  violent  wind  of  the  desert,  whose  Arabic  name  signifies 
ffty,  so  called  because  it  blows  in  the  fifty  days  which  precede 
and  follow  the  vernal  equinox  (22d  of  March,)  has  also  received 
from  the  Arabs  the  name  of  simoom,  which  signifies  poison. 
As  soon  as  it  commences,  the  sky  becomes  overcast,  the  sun 
appears  of  a  dull  red,  a  fine  gray  dust  fills  the  air,  and  pene- 
trates every  where,  even  into  the  most  compact  boxes.  The 
heat  becomes  excessive  and  parching,  like  that  which  exhales 
from  the  mouth  of  an  oven  at  the  instant  of  removing  the  bread ; 
respiration  is  rendered  short  and  laborious ;  in  vain  does  one 
have  recourse  to  continual  draughts  of  water  •  nothing  restores 


k 


226  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

the  perspiration.  The  inhabitants  retire  into  their  houses,  and 
silence  like  that  of  night  pervades  the  streets.  Fortunately, 
this  species  of  tempest  is  seldom  prolonged  beyond  three  days  in 
succession.  Sometimes  the  kamsin  causes  entire  caravans  to 
perish  in  the  desert.  As  soon  as  the  Arab  perceives  it,  he  casts 
himself  on  the  ground,  buries  himself  in  the  sand,  and  covers  his 
body  with  garments.  The  camel  even,  guided  by  instinct,  buries 
its  nose  in  the  sand,  in  order  that  the  fine  dust  of  the  simoom 
may  not  penetrate  into  its  lungs. 

Minerals.  —  Egypt  has  scarcely  any  minerals,  properly  so  called, 
neither  gold,  silver,  copper,  nor  iron ;  but  it  has  always  been 
famed  for  its  granites,  especially  its  red  sienites  and  its  porphy- 
ries, very  hard  stones,  spotted  with  different  colors,  which  have 
been  used  in  the  construction  of  most  of  the  obelisks  and  Egyp- 
tian statues.  The  alabaster  of  this  country  has  likewise  always 
sustained  a  great  reputation.  This  is  a  beautiful,  soft,  white  sub- 
stance, of  which  all  kinds  of  vases  and  ornaments  may  be  carved ; 
the  pacha  of  Egypt  is  now  constructing  an  entire  mosque  of  it 
in  the  citadel  of  Cairo,  his  capital  city.  Certain  lakes,  west  of 
the  Delta,  are  also  covered  in  winter  with  natron,  which  the  heat 
soon  transforms  into  a  thick,  hard,  and  crystalline  bed,  which  is 
detached  by  means  of  iron  bars. 

Vegetables.  —  Under  the  triple  influence  of  the  waters  of  the 
Nile,  of  a  hot  climate,  and  of  the  slime,  which,  when  carefully 
mingled  with  the  sand,  composes  an  excellent  vegetable  earth, 
Egypt  yields  the  richest  and  most  varied  products.  It  has  always 
been  renowned  for  its  fruitfulness  in  cereals ;  thus  in  the  Delta 
rice  is  cultivated,  wheat  especially  in  Upper  Egypt,  and  every 
where  barley,  with  which  the  horses  are  commonly  fed ;  of  the 
dhoura  the  peasants  make  their  bread,  while  the  dry  stalks  take 
the  place  of  firewood,  in  which  Egypt  is  completely  deficient, 
and  for  which  they  are  obliged  to  substitute  dried  plants  or 
manure  ;  maize  yields  a  double  crop  every  year ;  the  Greek  fen- 
nel, which  is  valuable  as  fodder,  is  also  eaten  by  the  Egyptians 
themselves,  who,  moreover,  roast  the  seeds  and  prepare  them  like 
coffee ;  beans  cover  immense  fields  ;  they  are  smaller  but  better 
than  ours,  and  form  one  of  the  principal  aliments  of  the  inhab- 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AFRICA.  227 

itants,  as  also  of  their  cattle ;  Mdney  beans,  peas,  lentils,  and 
lupines  abound;  the  ligneous  stalk  of  the  latter  is  a  common 
article  of  fuel ;  the  onions,  which  were  so  much  lamented  by  the 
wandering  Israelites  in  the  desert  of  Sinai,  always  maintain  their 
ancient  reputation ;  they  are  smaller  but  milder  than  those  of 
Europe,  and  very  great  consumption  is  made  of  them.  In  this 
country  are  found  a  profusion  of  watermelons,  that  refreshing 
fruit  which  Providence  seems  to  have  dispensed  with  a  liberal 
hand  in  the  hottest  countries.  It  is  well  known  what  a  benefit 
this  melon  proved  to  the  French  soldiers  during  their  march 
from  Alexandria  to  Cairo,  when  they  had  so  much  to  endure 
from  exposure  to  the  heat.  Thus,  in  order  to  express  how  inval- 
uable they  found  this  fruit,  they  called  it  Jioly  water  melon,  after 
the  example  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 

Among  the  textile  plants,  especial  mention  should  be  made  of 
the  fiax,  of  which  the  Egyptians  have  been  skilled,  from  the 
remotest  times,  in  manufacturing  cloth  of  the  finest  quality ;  cot- 
ton, which,  recently  introduced,  now  constitutes  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal sources  of  the  pacha's  wealth  ;  and  hemp,  which  is  used  not 
only  in  the  manufacture  of  ropes,  (flax  being  preferred  for  cloth,) 
but  also  in  the  preparation  of  an  intoxicating  beverage,  called 
hasheesh.  The  hemp  seeds,  ground  and  mixed  with  various  aro- 
matic substances,  are  prepared  in  greenish  pastils,  a  piece  of 
which,  of  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut,  is  sufficient  to  produce  a  sensi- 
ble effect.  It  is  employed  in  drinks,  and  smoked  in  the  form  of 
a  powder,  in  a  kind  of  pipe  or  narghileh.  In  either  case  it  pro- 
duces a  singular  intoxication,  —  a  strange  mixture  of  happiness, 
foolish  mii'th,  and  pleasant  dreams,  —  but  it  soon  imbrutes  those 
who  indulge  in  the  use  of  it.  It  was  by  means  of  the  hasheesh 
that,  in  the  times  of  the  crusades,  the  famous  Mussulman  chief, 
known  under  the  mysterious  name  of  the  Old  Man  of  the  3£ountain, 
excited  his  fanatic  bands,  whom  he  sent  to  a  distance  to  assassinate 
his  enemies.  It  is,  moreover,  from  the  word  hashashin  (hasheesh 
drinker)  that  chroniclers  have  derived  that  of  assassin,  which  we 
find  in  our  language.  At  the  present  day  the  preparation  of  the 
hasheesh  is  confined  to  the  lower  classes. 

Among  the  tinctorial  plants  of  Egypt  must  first  be  named  the 
carihamus,  an  annual  plant,  originally  from  India,  whose  flowers 


228  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

contain  a  coloring  principle,  called  carthamine,  or  vegetable  red, 
and  which  is  the  object  of  a  considerable  commerce.  The  best 
carthamine  comes  from  Egypt ;  the  color  is  of  little  durability, 
but  this  defect  is  counterbalanced  by  the  beauty  and  variety  of 
its  shades  ;  the  dyers  apply  it  principally  to  silk  and  cotton.  In 
certain  countries,  the  women  make  great  use  of  the  coloring 
principle  of  the  carthamus ;  artistically  mixed  with  the  mineral 
powder  called  talc,  it  becomes  a  very  choice  paint,  called  Spanish 
rouge.  Another  tinctorial  plant  which  flourishes  especially  in 
Egypt  is  the  henna.  The  leaves,  dried  and  reduced  to  powder, 
form  a  paste  which  the  women  of  all  Northern  Africa  ordinarily 
employ  in  dyeing  yellow  or  red  their  finger  and  toe  nails,  lips  and 
eyelids.  They  also  at  night  apply  this  paste  to  their  hands,  in 
skilfully  drawn  figures,  which  leave  an  impression  of  very  grace- 
ful designs.  Saffron,  indigo,  and  madder,  the  cultivation  of 
which  have  but  recently  been  introduced,  still  yield  inconsiderable 
products. 

Among  oleaginous  plants,  we  have  only  to  mention  the 
sesame,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  and  which  furnishes, 
for  exportation  into  France  and  elsewhere,  considerable  quanti- 
ties of  an  oil  very  much  appreciated  in  trade.  Egypt  also  has 
olive  trees,  but  they  are  not  very  abundant. 

Among  the  number  of  plants  and  trees  of  divers  uses,  and 
already  known,  which  exist  in  Egypt,  must  first  be  specified  the 
date  tree,  one  of  the  chief  glories  of  this  country  —  a  tree  every 
part  of  which  is  of  inestimable  benefit  to  the  poor  inhabitants  of 
these  countries.  Unfortunately,  the  pacha  has  not  failed  to  im- 
pose very  heavy  taxes  upon  these  most  useful  plants ;  he  keeps 
an  exact  and  strict  register  of  them,  and  for  the  six  millions 
which  are  found  in  the  whole  country  he  receives  more  than  two 
millions  of  francs.  There  are  twenty-tree  different  species,  and 
in  Lower  Egypt  they  are  sometimes  so  abundant  that  they  form 
complete  forests— the  only  ones  known  in  the  Valley  of  the  Nile. 
The  tamarinds,  cultivated  principally  for  their  shade,  shelter  the 
sakhies,  or  machines,  which  raise  the  water  for  irrigation.  The 
sycamore  is  the  largest  tree  in  Egypt,  and  its  branches,  which 
spread  almost  horizontally,  form  superb  shades,  invaluable  in  a 
hot  country.    It  produces  a  species  of  fig ;  but  by  an  anomaly  in 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  229 

nature,  they  are  not  suspended,  like  the  fruits  of  other  trees,  from 
the  extremities  of  the  branches,  but  grow  out  of  the  trunk  itself, 
and  on  the  thickest  boughs.  They  are  of  a  yellow  color,  and 
much  less  savory  than  the  common  fig.  The  sycamore  wood  is 
considered  incorruptible ;  the  cases  of  the  ancient  mummies  are 
all  made  of  it.  The  sugar  cane,  recently  introduced,  is  only  cul- 
tivated for  the  manufacture  of  sugar  in  Upper  Egypt ;  that  of 
the  Delta  is  sold  in  the  market  as  fruit,  and  women  and  children 
may  every  where  be  seen  with  pieces  of  it  in  their  mouths.  The 
roses  of  Fayoom  (a  small  isolated  province  at  the  west  of  the 
Valley  of  the  Nile)  give  rise  to  a  branch  of  commerce  very 
profitable  to  the  Orientals.  As  for  the  cactus  rackets,  jujubes, 
carohs,  lotuses,  pomegranates,  oranges,  lemons,  and  bananas,  which 
are  cultivated  in  greater  or  less  abundance  in  the  gardens,  we  are 
already  acquainted  with  their  products,  and  have  nothing  to  add 
respecting  them.  Enough  has  already  been  stated  to  give  an 
idea  how  rich  this  country  might  become  if  it  had  a  better 
government. 

Animals, — Under  this  head  we  have  nothing  remarkable  to 
relate.  Egypt  has  always  been  too  well  populated  for  wild 
beasts  of  any  importance  to  find  refuge  there.  It  contains  only 
a  few  hyenas,  jackals,  and  various  serpents ;  among  others  the 
naia,  which  the  Egyptian  enchanters  can  render  stiff  and  motion- 
less by  placing  their  finger  on  the  nape  of  its  neck.  This  pres- 
sure throws  it  into  a  kind  of  lethargy,  which  gives  it  the  appear- 
ance of  a  stick.  This  phenomenon  explains  that  passage  of  Exodus 
in  which  we  are  told  that  Pharaoh's  magicians  changed  their 
rods  to  serpents,  but  that  these  serpents  were  immediately  de- 
voured by  Aaron's  serpent.  (Exodus  vii.  11,  12.) 

The  domestic  animals,  horses,  camels,  oxen,  buffaloes,  mules,  and 
asses,  are  all  familiar  to  us.  We  should,  however,  particularize  the 
beauty  of  the  Egyptian  asses,  which  are  employed,  in  preference  to 
horses,  for  long  journeys  across  the  desert,  together  with  camels, 
loaded  with  the  heavy  merchandise  or  baggage.  In  the  principal 
squares  of  the  Egyptian  cities,  Alexandria  and  Cairo,  are  seen 
stationed,  instead  of  hackney  coaches  and  carriages,  sprightly  and 
mettlesome  asses,  which  rapidly  convey  travellers  wherever  they 
desire  to  go,  every  where  accompanied  by  their  drivers,  young  boys 
20 


230  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

accustomed  to  run  beliiiid  these  animals,  and  serve  as  guides  to 
travellers.  "We  have  also  a  curious  remark  to  offer  relative  to 
the  Egyptian  hens.  They  have  no  disposition  to  sit  on  their 
eggs — a  process  which  is  usually  dispensed  with  by  hatching  them 
in  hot  ovens,  maintained  at  a  suitable  heat.  The  owners  of  eggs 
carry  them  to  the  oven,  and  exchange  two  for  a  chicken.  It  is  cal- 
culated that  the  number  of  chickens  thus  artificially  hatched  may 
amount  to  even  30,000,000  a  year.  Many  pigeons  are  also  raised, 
much  esteemed  for  their  flesh,  which  is  very  delicate.  Flocks  of 
these  birds  may  constantly  be  perceived  alighting  in  the  fields,  or 
flying  over  the  river.  Villages  may  be  continually  discovered 
bristling  with  dovecots,  which  are  sources  of  wealth  to  the  poor 
peasants.    The  ihisy  the  bird  venerated  by  the  ancient  Egyptians 


Ibis. 

as  the  destroyer  of  serpents,  and  whose  body  is  so  often  found 
embalmed  among  the  mummies,  is  scarcely  met  with  except  in 
Upper  Egypt,  or  higher  still,  in  Nubia  and  the  country  of  Sennaar. 
The  population  is  composed  of  Turks,  who  are  the  conquering 
people;  they  occupy  the  high  posts,  or  employ  themselves  in 
commerce ;  and  Arabs,  a  small  number  of  which,  under  the  name 
of  Bedouins,  inhabit  the  frontiers  of  the  desert,  and  have  con- 
tinued nomadics,  whilst  the  others,  called  Fellahs,  have  become 
husbandmen,  and  form  the  mass  of  the  Egyptian  population. 
Notwithstanding  the  richness  of  the  soil,  the  Fellah  is  miserable ; 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AFRICA.  231 

the  rice  and  wheat  which  he  cultivates  are  for  his  masters,  while 
he  is  obliged  to  content  himself  with  his  black  and'  sour  dhoura 
bread  and  a  few  onions.  He  wears  a  gloomy  air,  like  a  man  ac- 
customed to  suffer,  and  has  no  taste  in  ornamenting  his  dwelling. 
His  cabin  resembles  a  beehive  into  which  the  air  and  light  can 
only  penetrate  through  the  door,  or  through  an  opening  made  in 
the  arched  roof;  the  yard  is  merely  a  stable,  where  all  the 
animals  live  promiscuously.  In  the  villages  one  is  assailed  by 
beggars.  Besides  Turks  and  Fellahs,  who  are  Mahometans, 
there  are  some  hundred  thousand  Christians  —  the  Copts,  who 
appear  to  be  descended  in  a  direct  line  fmm  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians ;  they  have  like  them  flat  noses,  thick  lips,  and  brown  com- 
plexions. Their  Christianity,  similar  to  that  of  the  Abyssinians, 
is  very  corrupt,  and  consists  chiefly  in  external  ceremonies.  Under 
the  name  of  scribes^  the  Copts  fill  the  inferior  ofiices  in  all  the  ad- 
ministrations. The  Jews,  Gi-eeks,  and  Franks j  (or  Europeans,) 
all  of  whom  are  engaged  in  commerce,  are  few  in  number. 

Sect.  5.  Lakes  of  Africa.  —  The  African  continent  con- 
tains only  a  very  small  number  of  lakes  of  inconsiderable  ex- 
tent, or  sufficiently  well  known.  None  of  them  appear  to  have 
any  commercial  importance. 

Lake  'Ngami.  —  This  beautiful  sheet  of  water,  situated  on 
the  high  plateau  of  Africa,  at  a  great  distance  from  the  country 
of  the  Bechouanas,  was  discovered  in  June,  1849,  by  an  intrepid 
English  missionary,  Mr.  Livingston.  It  is  thought  to  be  the  same 
as  that  of  which  the  Portuguese  had  knowledge,  and  which  they 
had  called  Maravi,  but  which  has  long  ceased  to  be  represented 
on  the  maps,  because  no  European  had  seen  it. 

Lake  Tsana,  or  Dembea.  —  This  lake  is  situated  in  Abys- 
sinia, on  the  plateau  of  Amhara.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Blue 
Nile,  whose  waters  never  mingle  completely  with  those  of  the 
lake,  and  which  soon  issue  from  it,  forming  a  great  number  of 
cataracts.  Every  year,  it  has  inundations,  and  the  slime  deposit- 
ed by  its  waters  renders  the  province  of  Dembea  extremely 
fertile.  This  province  produces  the  best  wheat  of  Abyssinia,  for- 
merly reserved  for  the  king  and  the  nobles  of  the  court. 

Lake  Tsana,  like  all  the  other  lakes  or  rivers  of  Africa,  abounds 
in  hippopotami.    This  heavy,  amphibious  animal,  the  third  of 


232  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

the  quadrupeds  in  size,  is  from  12  to  16  feet  in  length,  and 
almost  as  many  in  circumference;  but  it  is  thick  set,  and  low 
on  its  legs.  Its  head  is  enormous,  and  when  it  opens  its  wide 
mouth,  it  reveals  formidable  teeth.  With  such  a  jaw,  which 
usually  serves  only  to  grind  the  hard  and  tough  plants  on  which 
it  subsists,  the  hippopotamus  can  easily  sink  a  small  craft.  Its 
body  is  enveloped  in  a  coat  of  fat,  which  is  covered  by  a  thick, 


Hippopotamus. 

hard,  and  shining  hide,  nearly  destitute  of  hair.  Its  heavy 
and  massive  legs  are  terminated  by  small  conical  hoofs;  not- 
withstanding these  appearances,  this  animal  runs  with  great 
rapidity,  and  at  the  first  alarm  endeavors  to  cast  itself  into  the 
water.  It  there  dives,  and  seeks  shelter  in  the  bottom  of  the 
basin,  where  it  can  remain  a  long  time  without  being  obliged  to 
rise  to  the  surface.  It  waits  in  this  safe  retreat  until  the  danger 
is  past,  and  if  in  the  mean  time  it  requires  a  new  supply  of  air, 
it  comes  to  the  surface  to  take  it,  exposing  only  the  extremity  of 
its  nostrils. 

During  the  day  the  hippopotamus  usually  sleeps  in  the  sun, 
when  it  can  find  a  small  island,  where  it  fancies  itself  secure.  At 
nightfall  it  goes  to  seek  its  food  in  the  marshes  or  cultivated 
fields  on  the  shore,  and  there  the  borderers  of  Lake  Tsana  are 
accustomed  to  set  their  traps  for  it.  This  is  indeed  the  sole  occu- 
pation of  the  Christian  colony  of  Oeita.  A  lance,  the  iron  of 
which  is  not  attached  to  the  wood,  is  placed  in  such  a  manner 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA,  233 

that  the  animal,  stumbling  against  the  trap,  pierces  itself  with  it. 
It  then  seeks  refuge  in  the  lake ;  but  loss  of  blood  obliges  it,  after 
a  while,  to  regain  the  border,  where  it  finally  expires.  As  soon 
as  the  body  is  discovered,  the  lance  left  in  the  wound  is  examined, 
and  by  the  mark  which  it  bears  the  owner  is  recognized.  He 
then  holds  a  great  festival  with  his  family,  and  friends  are  in- 
vited to  partake  of  the  flesh,  which  is  considered  excellent  and 
savory.  Salted  and  dried,  the  layer  of  fat,  which  is  found  imme- 
diately under  the  skin,  is  very  much  esteemed  by  certain  epicures, 
among  others  by  those  of  Cape  Town.  Of  the  skin  are  made 
various  kinds  of  whips,  much  prized  in  Abyssinia. 

Lake  Tchad.  —  This  is  a  great  lake  of  fresh  water,  occu- 
pying an  extent  equal  to  the  whole  of  Switzerland,  and  which  is 
situated  in  the  centre  of  Nigritia  or  Soudan.  Its  fertile  but 
marshy  banks  form  a  striking  contrast  to  the  aridity  of  the  neigh- 
boring deserts.  The  climate  is  extremely  unhealthy ;  but  this  is 
not  the  only  nor  the  greatest  discomfort  of  this  country.  The 
singular  construction  of  the  houses,  excited  the  surprise  of  Major 
Denham.  They  consist  literally  of  five  or  six  contiguous  cel- 
lars. He  was  still  more  astonished  when  he  learned  that  this 
singular  arrangement  was  adopted  in  order  that  the  inhabitants 
miffht  find  in  their  abodes  a  retreat  from  the  incessant  attacks  of 
flies  and  gnats.  The  English  traveller  could  scarcely  credit  their 
statements,  until  one  of  the  men  of  his  company,  who  had  incon- 
siderately emerged  from  his  cellar,  reentered  with  his  head  and 
eyes  in  such  a  pitiable  condition,  that  he  was  sick,  in  consequence, 
during  more  than  three  days. 

Sect.  6.  Principal  Rivers  of  Africa.  —  The  African 
continent,  a  country  of  aridity  and  burning  deserts,  presents  only 
a  very  small  number  of  inconsiderable  rivers,  which  generally 
descend  by  many  cataracts  from  plateaus  of  greater  or  less  eleva- 
tion, scarcely  permitting  navigation  to  use  them  for  the  trans- 

I  portation  of  people  or  merchandise. 

Five  of  these  rivers  descend  from  the  plateau  of  Upper  Africa, 
in  three  difierent  directions;  three  others  from  that  of  Upper 
Soudan. 

The   Orange    River.  —  This  river,  situated  north  of  the 

:  Nieuwveld  Mountains,  takes  its  rise  in  the  Malontis  Mountains, 
?0* 


k 


234 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


9-nd  empties  at  the  west  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  derives  ife 
name  from  the  color  which  is  communicated  to  its  waters  by  the 
sand  on  its  banks.  The  Orange,  for  the  most  part,  extends  itself 
in  a  very  broad  sheet  of  water,  but  possesses  little  depth.  Its 
shady  banks  are  the  retreat  of  a  considerable  number  of  animals. 
There  are  found,  for  example,  many  tortoises,  which  birds  of 
prey,  crows  or  kites,  maliciously  lift  in  their  talons,  to  a  certain 
height,  in  order  to  cast  them  upon  the  rocks,  where,  their  shell 
being  broken,  they  are  instantly  devoured  by  their  greedy  enemies. 
On  the  borders  of  this  river,  legions  of  geese,  wild  ducks,  and  pinta- 


Flamingoes. 


does  may  also  be  seen ;  but  the  most  curious  objects  are  the  troops 
of  JJamingoes^,  so  called  on  account  of  their  back  of  a  scarlet 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  235 

red,  and  their  wings  of  a  dazzling  rose  color.  They  are  large 
birds,  whose  head  often  rises  six  feet  in  height ;  those  of  Southern 
Africa  are  much  smaller.  They  have  long  and  bare  legs,  like 
the  waders,  but  their  claws  are  united  by  a  membrane,  like  those 
of  web-footed  birds.  Their  long,  slender  neck  supports  a  small 
head,  provided  with  an  enormous  bill,  broken,  as  it  were,  at  the 
extremity.  They  live  on  shell-fish  and  insects;  but  before 
commencing  the  search  for  food,  they  range  themselves  in  a  line 
along  the  shore,  stationing  sentinels,  for  the  common  safety, 
which  by  a  loud  cry  warn  them  of  the  approach  of  the  enemy. 
In  case  of  danger  the  troop  take  to  flight,  always  maintaining 
regular  order.  Their  nests  are  of  conical  form,  a  foot  and  a  half 
in  height,  which  they  bestride  as  a  horseman  does  his  steed,  their 
long  legs  preventing  them  from  assuming  any  other  attitude  for 
hatching.  The  flesh  of  the  flamingo  was  much  esteemed  by 
the  ancients;  the  tongue  especially  being  regarded  as  a  very 
delicate  morsel ;  but  to  modern  taste  this  meat  possesses  a  dis- 
agreeable, marshy  odor,  and  an  oily  flavor. 

The  Zambeze.  —  This  river,  whose  sources  on  the  high 
plateau  are  unknown,  descends  from  terrace  to  terrace,  by  a  great 
number  of  falls  and  cataracts,  traversing  the  Lupata  Mountains 
and  the  coasts  of  Sofala  and  Mozambique,  where  it  empties  into 
the  Indian  Sea  by  many  mouths.  The  Zambeze  annually  inun- 
dates its  low  plain,  in  the  months  of  March  and  April,  thus  ren- 
dering its  delta  one  of  the  most  fertile,  but  also  one  of  the  most 
dangerous  in  Africa,  on  account  of  its  insalubrity.  Navigation  is 
impeded  on  this  river  not  only  by  its  numerous  falls,  but  also  by 
the  sand  banks  which  the  currents  of  the  north  constantly  accu- 
mulate at  the  entrance  of  the  mouths  of  the  river.  Nowhere, 
however,  are  the  hippopotami  so  numerous  and  so  formidable  to 
the  feeble  craft  of  the  natives.  The  Portuguese  have  long  since 
ceased  to  ascend  the  Zambeze  for  the  purpose  of  trading  in  the 
interior,  contenting  themselves  with  a  commerce  of  exchange  on 
different  points  of  these  coasts. 

The  Nile.  —  The  sources  of  the  Nile  are  yet  unknown ;  at 
least  no  European  has  succeeded  in  discovering  them.  How- 
ever, one  of  the  evangelical  missionaries,  established  on  the  coast 
of  Zanguebar,  Dr.  Krapf,  whose  discoveries  th.e  Geographical 


236  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

Society  of  Paris  have  recently  rewarded,  (as  also  those  of  the 
missionary  Livingston,)  declares  himself  convinced  that  the  Nile 
proceeds  from  a  great  lake  called  Namkenia,  situated  nearly 
under  the  equator,  at  the  foot  of  very  high  mountains,  which 
M.  Krapf  has  often  seen  at  a  distance,  always  covered  with 
snow. 

Proof  seems  to  be  'afforded  that  the  sources  of  the  Nile  are 
nourished  by  the  melting  of  the  perpetual  snows  on  the  remote 
plateaus  of  Upper  Africa,  from  the  circumstance  that  its  waters 
often  rise,  especially  in  the  hot  season,  to  such  a  degree  that  it 
then  resembles  a  lake  rather  than  a  river.  It  extends  from 
south  to  north  across  the  Mountains  (real  or  imaginary)  of  the 
Moon,  bearing  the  name  of  White  Nile,  in  opposition  to  another 
of  its  sources,  six  times  less  than  itself,  which,  under  the  name 
of  Blue  Nile,  descending  with  impetuosity  from  the  mountains 
of  Abyssinia,  makes  a  great  circuit,  and  unites  with  the  principal 
river  in  the  plains  of  Sennaar.  Thence,  after  receiving  also 
the  Tacazze  from  Abyssinia,  the  Nile  traverses  Nubia,  where 
it  creates  a  certain  number  of  falls,  and  finally  enters  the 
plains  of  Egypt,  at  the  extremity  of  which  it  empties  into 
the  Mediterranean  by  many  mouths,  forming  the  most  celebrated 
of  deltas. 

One  of  the  most  renowned  productions  of  the  Nile  is  the 
papyrus,  a  large  reed,  of  which  the  ancient  Egyptians  manufac- 
tured paper,  which  was  used  throughout  the  west  until  the  inven- 
tion of  parchment,  in  the  third  century,  and  more  especially  that 
of  rag  paper  in  the  tenth,  had  rendered  it  useless.  Its  triangu- 
lar stalk  rises  without  leaves  to  a  height  of  10  or  15  feet,  and 
terminates  in  an  ear,  bearing  a  plume  or  umbelliferous  tuft. 
The  papyrus  is  now  seldom  found  in  Egypt,  but  on  the  Upper 
Nile  it  is  used  in  many  ways.  A  sweet  juice  is  expressed  from 
the  root,  which  was  formerly  used  with  food ;  in  Abyssinia  the 
stalk  is  woven  into  such  a  compact  material  that  canoes  are 
made  of  it,  an  acacia  trunk  serving  as  a  keel.  But  originally  this 
plant  was  principally  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper.  For 
this  purpose  the  pellicle,  found  in  the  inside  of  the  bark,  was  cut 
in  long  and  narrow  strips ;  they  were  then  placed  upon  each 
other,  crosswise,  and  forcibly  pressed,  while  the  sweet  sap  of  the 


THE    CONTINENT    OF    AFRICA.  237 

plant,  acting  as  a  paste,  served  to  fix  them  in  leaves  of  the  proper 
size.  They  were  afterwards  carefully  smoothed  by  means  of  an 
ivory  plate. 


Papyrus. 

The  crocodile  probably  associates  itself  most  familiarly,  in 
the  minds  of  my  readers,  with  the  name  of  the  Nile.  We 
have  already  had  occasion  to  speak  of  it  in  connection  with 
the  Ganges.  This  animal  was  formerly  very  common  through- 
out Egypt;  now  it  is  only  met  with  in  Upper  Egypt  and  in 
Nubia.  There,  as  one  ascends  the  river  in  a  boat,  he  may  often 
perceive  a  crocodile,  basking  in  the  sun,  on  a  sandy  islet.  But 
while  it  reposes,  facing  the  wind,  with  its  mouth  half  open,  a 
multitude  of  insects  —  worms,  flies,  &c.  —  adhere  to  its  palate, 
without  its  being  enabled  to  rid  itself  of  them,  because  it  cannot 
move  its  tongue.  Then  a  little  bird,  the  trochilus^  fearlessly 
enters  this  motionless  jaw,  and  makes  a  meal  of  the  insects,  to 
the  great  relief  of  the  monster.  Not  content  with  this  service, 
it  is  said  that  the  trochilus,  at  the  approach  of  man,  warns  the 
crocodile  by  its  cries,  in  order  to  put  it  upon  its  guard. 


238  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

If  this  reptile  has  friends,  its  enemies  are  far  more  nu- 
merous. To  say  nothing  of  the  serpents,  which  purloin  and 
devour  its  eggs,  nor*  of  man,  who  pursues  it  in  so  many  ways, 
we  should  signalize  as  its  most  formidable  adversary  the  man- 
gouste,  or  ichneumon^  a  carnivorous  animal  of  the  si^e  of  a  cat, 
with  a  long  tail,  covered  with  long  hair.  It  is  tamed  in  the 
Egyptian  houses,  to  clear  them  of  rats,  serpents,  and  other 
noxious  animals ;  but  its  favorite  food  is  the  eggs  of  the  croco- 
dile, which  it  seeks  with  extreme  eagerness.  Thus  the  ichneu- 
mon was  formerly  worshipped  in  those  Egyptian  cities  where  the 
crocodile  was  detested,  and  pursued  in  those  where  he  was  held 
in  honor.  It  has  been  said  that  the  ichneumon,  gliding  into  the 
mouth  of  the  monster  during  its  sleep,  enters  into  the  interior  of 
its  body,  eats  away  its  entrails,  and  makes  its  escape  by  piercing 
through  the  exterior  of  the  carcass ;  but  this  is  a  mere  fable. 

The  Zaire  and  the  Coanz a.  —  A  vast  number  of  water- 
courses descend  from  the  mountains  of  Congo  and  flow  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  creating  numerous  falls  and  cataracts.  The  two 
principal  are  the  Congo,  which  at  its  mouth  takes  the  name  of 
Zaire,  and  the  Coanza,  which  is  situated  a  little  farther  south. 
These  rivers  are  almost  wholly  unknown  to  us. 

The  Niger.  —  This  celebrated  river,  known  even  to  thel 
ancients,  but  whose  direction  and  course  have  remained  a  mys- 
tery even  to  our  times,  rises  in  the  Kong  Mountains,  and  under 
the  name  of  Joliha  (or  great  water)  flows  first  north-easterly 
as  far  as  Timbuctoo,  on  the  boundary  of  the  Great  Desert,  then, 
bending  abruptly  towards  the  south-east,  it  takes  the  name  of 
Quorra,  and  empties  into  the  sea,  forming,  between  the  Bays  of 
Benin'  and  Biafra,  an  immense  delta,  completely  inundated 
every  year  during  the  rainy  season.  At  this  period,  indeed,  the 
Niger  has  considerable  risings.  It  then  overflows  and  diffuses 
itself  to  a  distance,  washing  away  with  its  waters  whole  trees, 
the  bodies  of  animals,  and  ruins  of  every  description.  On  the 
contrary,  when  the  rains  cease,  the  river  sinks  so  rapidly,  that  in 
a  few  weeks  it  ceases  to  be  navigable  for  vessels  drawing  more 
than  three  feet  of  water. 

Since  the  unfortunate  Mungo  Parh  discovered  the  upper 
course,  in  1805,  and  the  brothers  Lander  the  middle  and  lower 


THE  CONTINENT  OF'AFEICA.  239 

portion,  in  1830,  various  scientific  and  commercial  expeditions 
have  vainly  assayed  to  ascend  this  river.  The  last,  which  was 
undertaken  in  1841,  seemed  as  admirably  planned  as  could  be 
desired;  but  the  terrible  African  fever ^  defying  all  the  precau- 
tions which  had  been  taken,  raged  with  such  violence  among  the 
crew,  that  with  great  difficulty  a  few  convalescent  individuals 
succeeded  in  bringing  the  two  steamboats  back  to  the  sea.  The 
expedition  proved  a  complete  failure. 

The  Senegal  and  the  Gambia.  —  These  two  rivers  of 
Senegambia  rise  nearly  west  of  the  Kong  Mountains.  The  banks 
of  both  are  clothed  with  magnificent  vegetation,  or  bordered  with 
marshes,  and  their  sinuous  course  is  sprinkled  with  fertile  islands. 
A  sand  bar  prevents  large  ships  from  entering  the  Senegal ;  but 
merchant  vessels  can  always  ascend  the  Gambia  for  a  distance  of 
60  leagues.  We  have  already  observed  that  tJie  former  is  the 
principal  medium  of  communication  between  the  Europeans  and 
the  Moors,  who  carry  on  the  gum  trade  ;  the  latter  no  less  facili- 
tates commerce  with  the  colonies  of  the  interior. 

Like  all  the  rivers  of  Africa,  the  Senegal  and  the  Gambia  are 
infested  with  hippopotami,  alligators,  or  crocodiles  ;  but  the  latter 
are  much  the  most  dangerous.  They  frequently  seize,  on  the 
borders  of  the  river,  those  who  have  come  thither  to  quench 
their  thirst,  whether  man  or  beast.  Sometimes  the  unfortunate 
being  who  finds  himself  in  the  clutch  of  the  monster  can  compel 
it  to  relinquish  its  hold  by  plunging  his  fingers  into  its  eyes. 
The  eggs  of  the  crocodile  are  very  highly  prized  in  these  coun- 
tries ;  they  are  from  four  to  five  inches  in  length,  ahke  at  the 
two  extremities,  and  have  a  very  hard  shell.  When  found,  they 
are  divided  among  the  chiefs. 

Sect.  7.  Islands  of  Africa. — With  one  exception,  all 
these  islands  are  very  small,  and  merit  but  little  attention.  They 
are,  commencing  at  the  north-west,  the  Azores,  so  called  on 
account  of  the  great  number  of  agores  —  hawks  —  which  the  first 
Portuguese  colonists  there  encountered.  These  islands  are  vol- 
canic, and  of  an  extremely  picturesque  aspect ;  the  climate  is 
generally  very  salubrious,  although  somewhat  damp  ;  the  temper- 
ature is  delightful,  and  preserves  throughout  the  year  a  delicious 
spring-like  mildness,  which  attracts  thither  many  foreign  invalids. 


240  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

The  soil  is  fertile,  although  poorly  cultivated ;  grain,  wine,  and 
especially  oranges,  constitute  the  principal  agricultural  wealth  of 
the  Azores.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  magnificence  of  the  orange 
plantations  at  the  season  of  the  gathering.  In  seven  years  these 
trees  are  in  full  bearing,  and  having  arrived  at  their  perfection, 
may,  for  some  years  afterwards,  yield  an  average  of  from  10,000 
to  15,000  of  the  fruit.  Every  year  300  ships,  loaded  with  oranges, 
sail  for  England ;  in  1839,  120,000  boxes  of  this  fruit  were  ex- 
ported, valued  at  about  $600,000. 

The  Island  of  Madeira,  west  of  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar, 
has  also  a  volcanic  and  exceedingly  picturesque  aspect,  and  a  hot 
but  very  salubrious  climate,  which  draws  thither  a  great  number 
of  wealthy  English  families.  When  discovered,  Madeira  was 
entirely  covered  by  vast  forests,  which  were  burned  by  the  orders 
of  the  first  Portuguese  governor,  occasioning  such  a  conflagra- 
tion that  the  inhabitants  of  the  colony  were  compelled,  during 
two  days  and  nights,  to  immerse  themselves  up  to  their  shoulders 
in  the  sea,  in  order  to  escape  the  fury  of  the  flames.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  fire  the  soil  acquired  extreme  activity.  The  cul- 
tivation of  the  sugar  cane,  which  was  introduced  from  the  Isle  of 
Cyprus,  has  long  since  been  abandoned  for  that  of  the  vine, 
whose  products  are  known  throughout  the  world,  under  the  name 
of  Madeira  wiiies.  But  these  wines,  every  where  more  or  less 
counterfeited,  have  lost  much  of  their  importance  in  the  island 
of  which  they  once  constituted  the  principal  wealth. 

The  Canaries,  south-east  of  Madeira,  and  lying  near  the 
coast  of  Africa,  are  volcanic  islands  of  a  very  hot  climate.  The 
most  remarkable  of  these  seven  islands  is  that  of  Teneriffe,  in 
the  centre  of  which  towers  a  celebrated  volcano  of  11,400  feet 
in  height,  which  is  sometimes  active,  although  its  summit  is  cov- 
ered with  snow  during  the  whole  year. 

The  principal  productions  of  these  islands  are  very  strong 
wines ;  wheat,  which  yields  two  crops,  one  in  the  month  of  Feb- 
ruary, and  the  other  in  the  month  of  May ;  orchal,  a  species  of 
lichen,  which,  pulverized  and  mingled  with  lime  or  soda,  furnishes 
a  violet  or  purple  color,  very  much  employed  in  dyeing ;  dragovUs 
Uood,  a  red  resinous  substance,  formerly  used  in  medicine,  and  now 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  241 

in  the  composition  of  varnishes,  and  which  is  obtained  by  incision 
from  the  trunk  of  the  dragon,  a  tree  of  the  high  lands  of  the  Island 
of  Teneriffe ;  and  the  cochineal,  a  small  insect,  originally  from 


Cochineal. 

America,  which  lives  on  the  cactus,  where  it  is  procured,  plunged 
into  boiling  water,  and  then  dried.  It  supplies  a  beautiful 
scarlet  color,  and  the  cochineal  carmine,  which  is  employed  in 
painting.  The  animals  of  the  Canaries  afford  nothing  remarka- 
ble ;  it  is,  however,  from  these  islands  that  those  charming  little 
yellow  birds  are  obtained,  with  which  all  my  readers  are  familiar, 
and  which,  from  their  primitive  country,  have  received  the  popu- 
lar appellation  of  Canary  birds. 

The  Islands  of  Gape  Verde,  about  100  leagues  west  of 
the  cape  of  the  same  name,  are  some  of  them  low  and  sandy, 
others  mountainous  and  steep.  The  climate  is  very  hot  and  un- 
healthy. Sometimes  many  years  elapse  without  rain ;  then  horri- 
ble famines  sweep  away  men  and  animals.  The  principal  pro- 
ductions of  these  islands  are  salt,  orchal,  dragon's  blood,  maize, 
the  seed  of  which  multiplies  a  hundred  fold,  and  the  castor 
oil  or  jpalma  Christi.  This  vegetable,  which  in  the  south  of 
21 


242 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 


Europe  is  only  an  herbaceous  plant,  becomes  in  Africa  a  tree  of 
30  or  40  feet  in  height.  Its  fruit,  enclosed  in  a  globulous  capsule, 
with  three  protuberant  sides,  and  covered  with  thorns,  yields,  by 
expression,  a  thick  oil  very  much  in  demand,  and  employed  as  a 
very  mild  cathartic.  The  inhabitants  subsist  almost  entirely 
upon  the  flesh  of  wild  goats  and  hogs.  For  the  most  part,  all 
these  islands  suffer  from  the  want  of  trees,  (destroyed  by  the  first 
Portuguese)  and  from  an  insufficiency  of  Ivater. 

The  Islands  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  —  Fernando  Po, 
Isle  of  Prince,  St.  Thomas,  and  Annabon  are  volcanic,  covered 
with  a  luxuriant  vegetation,  and  possess  the  productions  of 
Guinea;  but  they  are  of  too  little  importance  to  claim  further 
attention. 

Ascension  Island,  west  of  the  preceding,  is  only  remarka- 
ble for  the  manner  in  which  its  English  garrison  has  suc- 
ceeded in  metamorphosing  an  arid  and  desolate  islet,  almost  des- 
titute of  water,  into  a  fertile  country,  furnishing  foreign  vessels 
with  fresh  supplies  of  cattle,  vegetables,  sea  birds'  eggs,  and 
especially  tortoises,  which  are  taken  in  considerable  quantities 
when  they  flock  to  these  shores  to  deposit  their  eggs ;  they  are 
then  preserved  in  parks.  Nowhere  are  they  found  larger,  some 
weighing  as  many  as  600  and  800  pounds. 


St.  Helena. 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AFRICA.  243 

St,  Helena^  immortalized  as  the  place  of  Napoleon  Eona- 
parte's  banishment  and  death,  is  a  small  volcanic  island,  en- 
compassed by  high  perpendicular  rocks,  and  accessible  only 
at  one  point.  The  climate  is  salubrious  and  temperate,  the 
aspect  mournful  and  gloomy ;  vegetation,  however,  is  flourishing 
in  certain  small  and  well-watered  valleys.  Most  of  the  fruits 
and  vegetables  have  been  introduced  from  Europe. 

Madagascar.  —  Following  the  eastern  coasts,  we  arrive 
opposite  one  of  the  largest  islands  in  the  world,  Madagascar, 
which  a  chain  of  high  mountains  traverses  from  north  to  south, 
from  Cape  Amber  to  Gape  St.  Mary,  The  climate  is  agreea- 
ble and  salubrious  in  the  interior,  but  extremely  dangerous,  and 
even  fatal,  on  the  coasts,  which  are  generally  very  marshy. 
This  island  possesses  the  exuberant  vegetation,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  products,  of  the  tropical  countries  —  rice,  yams, 
sugar  cane,  maize,  cotton,  indigo,  pepper,  oranges,  lemons,  and 
dates ;  all  kinds  of  timber  wood ;  precious  woods,  such  as  the 
sandal  and  ebony ;  others  which  furnish  gums,  and  still  others 
which  are  peculiar  to  this  island,  and  of  which  we  will  particu- 
larize only  three  —  the  ravinala,  the  poisonous  tanghin,  and  the 
pandanus. 

The  ravinala,  which  grows  in  the  marshes  and  on  the  borders 
of  streams,  resembles  the  palm  tree  in  its  trunk,  and  the  banana 
in  its  fan-shaped  leaves  from  8  to  9  feet  in  length,  and  which 
furnish  the  Madagascans  with  coverings  for  their  houses,  table 
cloths,  napkins,  dishes,  plates,  and  spoons  :  by  piercing  it  at  the 
root,  an  agreeable  beverage  is  procured,  and  thence  originated 
the  popular  name  of  the  traveller's  tree  ;  oil  is  also  manufactured 
of  the  skin  which  envelops  the  seeds,  and  of  the  farina  of  the 
latter  soup  is  prepared.  The  tanghin  is  a  tree  of  about  30  feet 
in  height,  whose  oily  seed  is  appropriated  to  a  singular  use,  being 
employed  in  legally  establishing  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  the  ac- 
cused, when  there  is  no  other  means  of  proving  the  crime.  If 
the  accused  is  robust,  the  strength  of  his  constitution  enables  him 
to  disgorge  the  poison,  and  he  is  then  proclaimed  innocent ;  other- 
wise, he  dies,  and  his  guilt  is  thus  attested ;  his  confiscated  prop- 
erty is  divided  into  three  portions,  one  for  the  chief,  another  for 
the  officers,  and  the  third  for  the  informant.    The  pandanus  is 


244 


THE  GEOGRAPHY   OF  NATURE. 


Ravinala. 


also  a  singular  tree  ;  the  inhabitants  call  it  vacoua^  and  make  use 
of  its  fruit  for  food.  The  trunk  of  this  tree  is  encircled  by  rings ; 
at  the  root  these  rings  produce  thick  fibres,  which  separate  from 
the  trunk  and  become  implanted  in  the  soil,  forming  curved 
arches,  whose  singular  appearance  has  always  attracted  the  no- 
tice of  travellers.  The  flowers  of  some  species  of  the  pandanus 
are  remarkable  for  their  exquisite  and  penetrating  odor.  Some 
of  them  are  so  powerful  that  an  apartment  in  which  they  have 
been  placed  for  a  few  hours  will  retain  the  perfume  for  a  month. 
The  animals  are  quite  remarkable.  The  oxen,  which  acquire 
great  proportions,  and  with  which  Madagascar  supplies  the  neigh- 


THE  CONTINENT   OP  AFRICA. 


245 


Vacoua. 


boring  islands,  are  -aU  zebtiSj  ox  oxen  wiik  fat  humps,  certain  va- 
rieties of  which  lack  hqms.  Jl  large  bat,  whose  flesh  is  said  to 
be  very  delicate,  furnishes  an  article  of  food.    Madagascar  pro- 


Macatico. 


duces  certain  singular  quadrupeds  which  are  found  nowhere  else 
—  the  macaticos,  or  lemurs,  a  large  class  of  monkeys,  known  by 
21* 


246 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


the  name  of  monkeys  with  foxes^  muzzles,  and  whose  heads  rather 
resemble  those  of  the  dog  than  of  the  human  figure.  They  are 
very  agile,  but  indolent  and  fond  of  sleeping  during  the  day. 
They  are  distrustful  and  wild,  but  caught  young  they  may  be 
easily  tamed.  There  are  several  varieties,  among  which  the 
aye-aye,  surnamed  Madagascar  squirrel,  on  account  of  its  resem- 
blance to  the  latter  quadruped ;  and  the  galagos,  w^hich  differ 
from  other  monkeys  in  their  enormous  ears  and  bushy  tail. 

The  population,  which  comprises  several  millions  of  inhabit- 
ants, is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  strong  and  vigorous  negro 
tribes  ;  that  of  the  Owas,  in  the  centre  of  the  island,  have  almost 
European  features,  a  copper  rather  than  black  complexion,  and 
appear  to  be  descended  from  Arabs  who  have  intermixed  with 
these  populations.     Under  a  great  king,  an  emulator  of  European 


Oioa. 


civilization,  the  Owas  had  obtained  sway  over  the  whole  island : 
Radama  received  the  English  missionaries,  established,  schools, 
encouraged  the  introduction  of  our  arts  and  sciences,  and  formed 
for  himself  an  army,  equipped  and  disciplined  according  to  the 
European  model.  But  he  was  poisoned  by  his  wife  Ranavala, 
who  took  possession  of  the  throne,  banished  all  foreigners,  pro- 
scribed all  the  new  customs,  and  commenced  against  her  Chris- 
tianized subjects  horrible  persecutions,  which  recall  those  of  the 
ancient  Roman  emperors.  Every  kind  of  torment  that  could  be 
jievised  was  inflicted ,  upon  these  courageous  martyrs,  and  in  a 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA.  247 

single  year,  1849,  nearly  2000  persons,  taken  from  all  classes, 
sealed  with  their  blood  the  testimony  of  their  faith  in  Jesus 
Christ.  Last  year,  however,  the  queen's  own  son,  who  is  him- 
self a  sincere  Christian,  received  from  his  mother  the  direction  of 
affairs,  and  put  an  end  to  the  persecutions. 

The  Island  of  Bourhon,  (or  of  the  Reunion,)  north-east  of 
Madagascar,  forms  a  part  of  the  cluster  of  the  Mascarenes. 
The  aspect  of  Bourbon  is  severe  ;  the  island  erects  itself  like  an 
immense  landmark  from  the  bosom  of  an  ocean  always  convulsed ; 
not  a  port  or  creek  there  offers  a  shelter  to  vessels.  From  the 
midst  of  the  sombre  and  rugged  peaks  rises  a  volcano  in  full  ac- 
tivity, whose  burning  lava,  after  gliding  over  the  sides  of  the 
mountain,  disappears  in  the  sea,  amid  clouds  of  smoke  and  vapor. 
Although  situated  in  the  torrid  zone,  this  is  one  of  the  most  salu- 
brious countries  in  the  world,  and  its  fine  climate,  its  pure  air, 
the  abundance  of  its  water,  the  freshness  of  its  breezes,  and  the 
luxuriance  of  its  vegetation,  all  combine  to  render  it  a  most  agree- 
able abode.  Terrible  hurricanes,  which  sometimes  cause  great 
destruction,  are  the  only  dark  feature  which  such  a  climate  pre- 
sents. Sugar  cane  and  coffee  are  especially  cultivated  there ; 
but  spices,  and  the  best  fruits  of  the  torrid  zone,  may  be  met  with 
side  by  side  with  the  vegetables  and  fruits  of  Europe.  The 
population  consists  chiefly  of  free  blacks,  of  coolies,  —  Hin- 
doo laborers,  —  and  of  French  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of 
the  island. 

The  Isle  of  France,  which  has  received  the  name  of  Mau- 
ritius since  it  came  into  the  possession  of  England,  greatly 
resembles  the  preceding  in  its  aspect  and  climate ;  but  its  road- 
steads and  ports  give  it  a  much  greater  commercial  importance. 
The  most  striking  objects  in  this  second  of  the  Mascarenes  are 
its  bluffs  or  rounded  summits,  and  its  peaJcs,  or  mountains  of  con- 
ical form,  the  most  singular  of  which  is  the  Peter  Botte,  which,  on 
a  point  like  that  of  a  great  obelisk,  supports  a  vast  rock,  much 
larger  than  itself,  to  the  top  of  which  men  have,  however,  been 
known  to  ascend.  The  cultivation  of  sugar,  coffee,  and  indigo 
is  most  flourishing.  Shaddocks,  fruits  resembling  both  oranges 
and  lemons,  also  abound  in  this  country.  The  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  are  composed  of  free  blacks  and  French. 


^48  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

The  Com'oro,  north  of  the  Mozambique  Channel,  int^- 
spersed  with  shoals  and  reefs,  are  four  small  mountainous  islands, 
of  a  salubrious  climate  and  the  most  superb  vegetation.  .  The  in- 
habitants, a  mixture  of  negroes  and  Arabs,  all  Mahometans,  are 
quite  civihzed.  France  has  founded  an  establishment  at  Mayotte, 
one  of  these  islands. 

The  Seychelles,  north-east  of  Madagascar,  formerly  colonized 
by  France,  and  now  occupied  by  the  English,  are  chiefly  cel- 
ebrated for  their  Cocos  de  Mer,  or  double  cocoa  nuts,  which, 
transported  by  the  currents  of  the  sea  even  to  the  coasts  of  India, 
were  long  considered  a  mysterious  production  of  the  abysses  of 
ocean,  possessing  properties  efficacious  in  all  kinds  of  diseases, 
and  the  smallest  fragment  of  which,  on  this  account,  sold  for  ex- 
orbitant prices  ;  it  was  so  expensive  that  the  Emperor  of  Germa- 
ny, Rodolph  II.,  could  not  obtain  for  the  sum  of  4000  florins  a 
single  one  of  these  famous  nuts  of  Solomon^  as  they  were  called. 
These  islands,  the  principal  of  which  is  Make,  are  very  fertile, 
but  of  inconsiderable  importance.  Among  them  also  are  the 
Amirantes,  almost  deserted  islets,  not  far  from  the  Seychelles, 
and  which  are  very  much  frequented  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
latter,  who  resort  thither  to  engage  in  the  tortoise  fishery. 

The  Socotra  Island,  east  of  Cape  Guardafui,  the  most  east- 
em  part  of  Africa,  possesses  an  arid,  stony  soil,  almost  entirely 
destitute  of  water  and  vegetation.  It,  however,  produces  a  great 
quantity  of  dates  and  Socotrine  aloes,  the  best  that  are  known. 
This  island  abounds  in  goats  and  poultry ;  but  it  contains  very 
few  oxen ;  it  lacks  a  harbor,  and  is  subject  to  the  Imaum  of 
Muscat,  on  the  south-eastern  coast  of  Arabia. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  CONTINENT   OF  EUROPE. 

Europe  is,  like  Africa,  a  great  peninsula  of  Asia ;  but  this  is 
the  only  point  of  resemblance  which  exists  between  these  two 
continents.  In  every  other  respect  they  offer  a  complete  contrast. 
Africa  is  solid  and  massive,  and  presents  in  its  form  and  in 
the  nature  of  its  soil  a  thousand  obstacles  to  communication  ; 
Europe  on  the  contrary,  is  penetrated  in  all  directions  by  inland 
seas  of  every  description,  which,  by  means  of  commerce  and  nav- 
igation, place  each  European  nation  in  easy  contiguity  with  the 
people  and  products  of  the  whole  world.  And  not  only  has 
Europe  the  inestimable  advantage  of  being  thus  penetrated  and 
intersected  by  numerous  seas,  but  it  possesses  a  great  number  of 
rivers,  almost  all  of  which  are  navigable,  or  which,  by  the  aid  of 
canals,  enable  the  countries  of  the  interior  to  communicate  read- 
ily with  the  sea.  Here  are  none  of  those  vast  plateaus  which, 
like  those  of  Asia,  are,  by  their  high  mountains  and  their  own 
elevation,  completely  separated  from  the  neighboring  plains. 
Europe  contains  many  mountains,  but  they  are  easily  surmounted, 
and  but  little  isolated.  It  seems,  in  certain  respects,  to  repro- 
duce the  image  of  Asia :  it  possesses  at  the  south,  like  the  latter, 
three  great  peninsulas ;  Corea  has  its  counterpart  in  Brittany, 
Kamtchatka  in  Scandinavia ;  the  form  of  Europe,  however,  is 
much  more  original  and  varied.  It  is  not  surprising  that 
this  continent,  although  one  of  the  smallest,  has  acquired  a 
marked  predominance  over  all  the  others,  exciting  their  emula- 
tion by  its  incessant  activity,  and  by  the  influence  of  its  religion 
and  sentiments,  as  well  as  by  the  power  of  its  arms. 

Section  1.  Boundaries  of  Europe.  —  Europe  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  chief  branch  of  which  is 
the   White  Sea,  penetrating  into  the   land  at  the  north  of  the 

(249) 


250         THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

European  continent.  It  has  been  called  the  White  Sea  on  ac- 
count of  the  ice,  which  covers  it  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  ren- 
dering it  inaccessible  except  during  three  or  four  months.  It  is 
even  deep  enough  to  receive  men-of-war ;  but  its  coasts,  generally 
of  little  elevation,  present  almost  every  where  inhospitable  rocks, 
or  miry  swamps,  and  when  the  winds  from  the  north-east  break 
up  the  ice  in  the  spring,  terrible  shocks  ensue. 

This  sea  was  discovered  (just  300  years  ago)  by  an  English 
admiral,  Chancellor,  who  was  seeking  a  passage  to  the  Indies  by 
the  north  of  Asia,  and  it  was  for  a  great  length  of  time  the  only 
sea  by  which  Russia  could  communicate  with  Western  Europe. 
Fish  furnish  the  principal  resource  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  coasts ; 
they  take  prodigious  quantities  of  them,  which  they  exchange  for 
all  kinds  of  merchandise ;  they  also  consume  great  numbers,  and 
often,  during  the  winter,  partly  feed  their  cattle  upon  them,  after 
bruising  and  reducing  them  to  powder.  Within  a  certain  period, 
a  new  and  important  fishery  has  been  established  in  these  cold 
regions,  viz.,  that  of  the  shark.  It  possesses  the  two-fold  advan- 
tage of  destroying  a  great  enemy  of  other  fish,  and  of  furnishing 
an  excellent  fat,  from  which  an  oil  is  extracted  suitable  for  lamps, 
and  held  in  high  estimation  by  tanners.  A  single  shark  has 
yielded  as  much  as  400  pounds  weight  of  this  fat,  capable  of  pro- 
ducing from  6  to  8  tons  of  oil.  The  flesh  is  regarded  as  a  dainty 
in  these  countries,  and  the  salted  shark  is  readily  disposed  of  in 
the  markets  of  St.  Petersburg,  the  capital  of  Russia. 

Europe  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  which 
forms  on  its  coasts  a  great  number  of  seas,  individually  remark- 
able. 

North  Sea.  —  The  Atlantic  Ocean  first  forms  at  the  north- 
west, between  the  European  continent  and  the  British  Isles,  a 
vast  sea,  known  under  the  name  of  North  Sea,  This  sea,  whose 
waters  are  generally  deep,  and  agitated  by  strong  currents,  pre- 
sents at  the  north-east  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  the  dangerous 
whirlpool  of  the  Maelstrom,  a  terrible  vortex,  into  which  ships 
are  often  irresistibly  lured  and  ingulfed,  as  likewise  the  bears 
or  whales  which  chance  to  cross  it.  As  it  is  much  less  formi- 
dable in  summer  than  in  the  spring  and  autumn,  and  as  its  course, 
after  being  directed  from  north  to  south  during  six  hours,  becomes 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUEOPE.  251 

reversed  during  six  alternate  hours,  it  has  been  supposed  that 
this  roaring  phenomenon  was  caused  by  the  action  of  the  tide  and 
currents,  counteracted  by  the  existence  of  a  labyrinth  of  subma- 
rine reefs. 

The  North  Sea  forms  on  its  shores  a  considerable  number  of 
gulfs,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  unquestionably  the  Zuyder 
Zee,  a  vast  lake  of  salt  water,  full  of  shoals,  difficult  and  danger- 
ous of  navigation,  and  which  was  produced  about  600  years  ago 
by  terrible  inundations,  during  which  the  waves  of  the  North  Sea, 
precipitated  into  the  interior  of  the  land  by  violent  winds,  sub- 
merged the  country  to  a  great  distance,  and  caused  nearly  100,000 
persons  to  perish. 

The  coasts  of  this  sea  are  the  principal  theatre  of  the  herring 
fishery.     The  herring  is  a  pretty  fish,  of  a  beautiful  green  color, 


Herring. 

silvered  underneath  and  on  its  sides.  These  fish  are  no  longer 
supposed  to  come  from  the  polar  regions ;  every  thing  seems  to 
indicate  that  at  a  certain  period  they  retreat  into  the  depths  of 
the  ocean,  issuing  thence  when  instinct  prompts  them  to  seek 
more  shallow,  and  consequently  warmer  waters,  in  which  to  de- 
posit their  eggs.  When  the  herrings  are  coasting  along  the 
shores,  their  numbers  are  so  prodigious,  and  their  columns  so 
dense,  that  they  may  sometimes  be  caught  with  the  hand.  Thou- 
sands of  voracious  fish  follow  these  shoals  of  herring,  and  devour 
innumerable  quantities.  Notwithstanding  this,  and  the  exertions 
of  the  fishermen,  the  herrings  do  not  perceptibly  diminish,  but 
they  sometimes  abandon  certain  coasts  for  others.  This  fishery, 
which,  two  centuries  ago,  constituted  the  wealth  and  power  of 
Holland,  is  now  principally  conducted  by  the  English.  The  best 
-  herrings  are  those  which  are  taken  farthest  north.  This  fishery 
1  commences  in  June  and  terminates  in  January.    The  immense 


252  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

nets  are  cast  into  the  sea  at  night,  and  the  torches  attached  to  the 
boats  serve  to  attract  the  fish.  They  are  eaten  fresh  or  salted. 
Packed,  or,  in  other  words,  salted  by  the  Dutch  and  smoked, — that 
is,  smoked  and  dried,  after  undergoing  for  a  time  the  action  of 
salt,  —  the  herring  may  be  kept  in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation, 
and  exported  to  a  distance,  even  into  the  hottest  countries.  The 
whiting  is  also  a  fish  which  abounds  in  the  North  Sea.  Salted,  it 
takes  the  name  of  stockfish,  which  is  also  given  to  the  dry  cod. 
Another  fish,  whose  flesh  is  sohd  and  not  very  delicate,  and  of 
which  great  consumption  is  made  at  the  north,  is  the  flounder, 
usually  6  or  7  feet  in  length,  but  which  often  attains  gigantic  pro- 
portions. Although  voracious  and  very  strong,  it  is  the  habitual 
prey  of  dolphins  and  sharks. 

Baltic  Sea.  —  East  of  the  North  Sea  stretches  a  vast  in- 
ternal sea,  known  by  the  name  of  Baltic.  They  communicate 
by  the  broad  strait  of  Skagger  Back  and  Gattegat,  celebrated  for 
the  number  and  excellence  of  its  lobsters  —  large  species  of  craw- 
fish, which  attain  even  a  foot  and  a  half  in  length,  and  whose 
flesh  is  very  much  esteemed.  However,  one  cannot  truly  be  said 
to  have  penetrated  into  the  Baltic  Sea  until  he  has  crossed  one 
of  the  three  straits  which  obstruct  its  entrance  —  the  Sound,  the 
Great  Belt,  and  the  Little  Belt. 

The  Sound  is  the  only  one  of  these  passages  which  is  in  any 
degree  safe ;  and  even  there  are  encountered,  especially  towards 
the  eastern  coast,  shoals,  which  can  only  be  avoided  by  daylight, 
with  a  good  wind,  and  by  the  aid  of  native  pilots.  Some  days 
vessels  arrive  there  by  hundreds,  and  their  number  is  yearly  aug- 
menting, (13,000  passed  through  in  1837.)  Every  ship  is  vis- 
ited and  taxed  according  to  the  merchandise  which  it  carries,  and 
the  annual  tribute  is  estimated  at  about  $765,000,  which  Denmark 
thus  levies  upon  the  commerce  of  all  nations  obliged  to  pass  be- 
neath its  citadels,  in  order  to  profit  by  its  lighthouses  and  pilots. 
The  navigation  of  the  two  Belts,  which  open,  one  between  two  of 
the  principal  islands. of  which  Denmark,  properly  called,  is  com- 
posed, and  the  other  between  the  most  western  of  these  and  the 
main  land,  is  rendered  dangerous  by  a  great  number  of  islets  and 
sand  banks,  and  ships  there  likewise  pay  a  duty. 

The  Baltic  forms  several  large  gulfs —  that  of  Bothnia  at  the 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  253 

north,  that  of  Finland  at  the  east,  and  that  of  Livonia,  or  Riga, 
south  of  the  preceding ;  all  very  productive  of  fish,  but  shallow, 
bordered  with  shoals,  and  covered  with  ice  as  soon  as  the  winter 
commences.  The  entire  Baltic  presents  the  form  of  a  kneeling 
woman,  looking  towards  the  east.  The  Gulf  of  Bothnia  represents 
her  head,  neck,  and  breast,  the  Gulf  of  Finland  an  extended 
arm,  which  grasps  St.  Petersburg,  whilst  the  Gulf  of  Riga 
seems  suspended  on  the  arm  like  a  bag,  at  the  bottom  of  which  is 
found  the  important  city  of  Riga. 

Like  all  internal  seas,  the  Baltic  has  scarcely  any  tides ;  but  as 
it  receives  a  great  number  of  rivers  and  fresh  water  affluents,  its 
waters,  containing  less  salt  than  those  of  the  ocean,  freeze  more 
easily,  in  consequence  of  which,  navigation  is  interrupted  by  ice 
during  three  or  four  months  of  the  year.  It  is  of  little  depth, 
(300  feet  at  most,)  and  the  pilots  are  obliged  to  pursue  well-known 
routes,  or,  so  to  speak,  channels,  in  order  to  escape  the  shoals ;  for 
thick  fogs  frequently  prevent  their  deriving  any  benefit  from  the 
numerous  lighthouses,  placed  on  the  eastern  coasts.  The  water 
conveyed  by  so  many  rivers  into  the  Baltic,  creating  a  repletion, 
occasions  strong  currents,  which  direct  their  course  towards  the 
North  Sea,  through  the  straits,  and  in  the  spring  sweep  thither 
the  ice,  which,  when  intercepted  in  its  progress  by  the  west  winds, 
renders  navigation  difficult.  All  these  circumstances  combine  to 
render  the  Baltic  a  very  dangerous  sea,  and  yet  commerce  is  de- 
pendent upon  it  for  obtaining  many  of  the  products  which  are 
most  indispensable  to  our  welfare  —  wheat,  wood,  hemp,  flax, 
tallow,  &c. 

The  English  Channel.  —  South-west  of  the  North  Sea, 
and  of  the  Straits  of  Dover,  which  serve  as  a  passage  from  one  to 
the  other,  is  found  the  English  Channel.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
frequented  in  Europe,  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  those  in  which 
the  most  shipwrecks  occur,  owing  to  the  triple  action  of  sudden 
and  violent  tempests,  of  strong  westerly  currents,  and  of  tides 
more  considerable  than  are  met  with  in  any  other  portion  of  the 
European  continent.  Many  are  the  English  and  French  vessels 
which,  after  successfully  accomplishing  voyages  to  the  most  distant 
countries,  have  been  dashed  to  pieces  in  this  sea,  at  the  moment 
of  arriving  in  port. 

22  0 


254  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

This  Channel  is  very  fruitful  in  lish,  and  furnishes  the  border- 
ers with  abundant  resources.  But  of  all  its  products  the  most 
celebrated  and  most  important  are  the  oysters^  considerable  beds 
of  which  exist  near  Cancale,  at  the  bottom  of  a  bay  situated 
south-west  of  the  Channel.  This  valuable  fishery,  subject  to  the 
strict  rules  of  a  regular  exploration,  supplies  commerce  every 
year  with  about  a  hundred  million  of  oysters.  Nevertheless,  the 
number  does  not  diminish,  which  is  explained  by  the  fact  that 
each  oyster  lays  annually  50  or  60  thousand  eggs. 

They  are  usually  collected  on  the  banks  with  the  dredge,  a 
species  of  large  iron  rake,  which  is  dragged  over  the  sand  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sea.  The  little  ones  are  immediately  rejected  ;  the 
rest  are  deposited  in  beds  or  basins  dug  on  the  shore,  and  into 
which  the  waters  can  penetrate  at  high  tide.  There  they  grow 
large  and  fatten,  for  the  oyster  requires  four  or  five  years  to  at- 
tain the  ordinary  dimensions  of  those  which  are  served  on  our 
tables. 

Various  excellent  fish  are  taken  in  the  English  Channel,  such 
as  herrings,  which  come  thither  from  the  North  Sea ;  mackerel^ 
fish  from  one  to  two  feet  in  length,  which  are  eaten  fresh,  and 
enormous  quantities  of  which  are  salted,  on  all  the  European 
coasts ;  soles,  whose  flesh  is  highly  esteemed ;  and  rays,  which, 
like  the  soles,  are  flat  fish,  but  of  much  larger  size. 


Hay. 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE. 


255 


Irish  Sea.  —  North-west  of  the  English  Channel,  between 
the  two  largest  divisions  of  which  the  group  of  the  British  Isles 
is  composed,  (Great  Britain  and  Ireland,)  is  the  Irish  Sea,  where 
occur  the  highest  tides  in  Europe,  particularly  in  the  Bristol 
Channel,  towards  the  south-east. 

Few  countries  in  Europe  are  so  favored  in  fresh  and  salt  water 
fish  as  the  British  Isles ;  nowhere  are  encountered  such  multi- 
tudes of  sea  birds,  (whose  eggs  give  rise  to  an  important  traffic,) 
although  they  are  procured,  at  the  risk  of  human  life,  from  the 
sides  of  the  rocky  precipices,  where  they  are  deposited  by  the 
parent  birds.  The  Irish  Sea,  in  particular,  abounds  in  herrings, 
mackerel,  cod,  and  salmon. 

Salmon  are  met  with  in  all  the  northern  seas,  from  whence 
they  every  year  ascend  the  tributary  rivers  in  order  to  deposit 


Salmon. 


their  eggs ;  but  nowhere  is  the  fishery  so  productive  as  in  the 
British  Isles.  This  is  a  fish  from  two  to  four  feet  in  length, 
weighing  ordinarily  from  twenty  to  thirty  pounds,  whose  ex- 
cellent flesh  is  eaten  fresh  or  salted.     The  salmon  can  scarcely 


256  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

cross  a  dam  of  any  elevation  ;  therefore  it  is  chiefly  at  the  foot  of 
waterfalls,  and  at  the  moment  when  these  animals  are  stru2:2:line: 
to  conquer  such  obstacles,  that  they  are  captured  in  abundance. 
There  is  a  universal  complaint  of  a  rapid  diminution  in  the 
number  of  these  fish,  which  encounter  dangerous  enemies,  not 
only  in  man,  but  also  in  seals  and  other  cetacea. 

Bay  of  Biscay.  —  The  Atlantic  Ocean  forms  also,  on  the 
western  coasts  of  Europe,  a  sea  known  under  the  names  of  Gulf 
of  Gascony,  or  Bay  of  Biscay,  almost  as  dangerous  as  the 
English  Channel,  and  much  more  destitute  of  good  harbors.  As 
it  is  very  deep,  the  waves,  driven  by  the  north-west  winds,  lash 
the  coasts  without  check  or  impediment,  breaking  furiously  upon 
the  steep  declivities  of  the  shore ;  thus  every  ship  which  is  strand- 
ed there  is  inevitably  lost. 

This  sea  contains  great  numbers  of  torpedoes,  those  singular 
fish,  which  discharge  at  the  touch  such  painful  electric  shocks. 
Some  of  them  have  been  taken  which  weighed  as  many  as  fifty 
l^ounds,  but  their  flesh  is  soft  and  disagreeable.  Another  fish 
which  appears  in  vast  numbers  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  is  the 
object  of  a  considerable  fishery,  is  the  germon,  whose  white  flesh 
is  held  in  high  estimation.  But  the  fish  of  which  these  waters 
are  most  productive  is  the  sardine,  a  small  fish  of  the  herring 
species,  which  every  year,  at  the  commencement  of  autumn,  quits 
the  depths  of  the  ocean,  and  approaches  the  shores  in  order  to 
deposit  its  eggs.  Its  dense  ranks  then  offer  to  the  populations  of 
the  coast  a  certain  and  easy  prey.  Thus,  in  some  of  the  provinces 
of  France,  even  the  peasants  abandon  for  a  time  their  usual  oc- 
cupations, to  appropriate  their  share  of  this  annual  manna.  A 
single  cast  of  the  net  has  sometimes  captured  sufficient  to  fill 
forty  casks.  This  fishery,  which  commences  in  May  and  termi- 
nates in  November,  furnishes,  moreover,  a  lucrative  employment, 
not  only  to  the  men,  but  also  to  the  women,  who  take  part  in 
the  operation  of  salting. 

The  Mediterranean.  —  Owing  to  its  extent  and  impor- 
tance, this  may  be  considered  as  the  third  of  the  great  seas  of 
Europe,  and  like  the  two  preceding,  it  forms  many  distinct  seas, 
almost  all  of  which  serve  as  boundaries  to  the  continent.  It  is 
naturally  divided  into  two  principal  parts,  to  which  we  shall  suc- 
cessively invite  'vcinr  nt *PTif irsr. 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE.  257 

The  Westerji  Mediterranean  extends  between  Europe  and 
Africa,  from  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  to  the  point  where  these  two 
continents  are  again  rendered  contiguous,  by  means  of  a  large 
intervening  island,  (Sicily.)  It  forms  no  distinct  seas,  but  only  a 
few  gulfs,  of  which  the  best  known  are  those  of  Genoa,  at  the 
north-east,  and  that  of  Lyons,  the  latter  so  called  on  account  of 
its  tempests,  the  danger  of  which  is  aggravated  by  low  and  miry 
coasts,  and  by  the  absence  of  good  ports. 

The  Mediterranean  nourishes  the  polypi  which  produce  the 
finest  coral.  This  is  one  of  the  most  precious  substances  of  the 
sea,  and  from  the  remotest  times  the  brilliancy  of  its  color,  has 
given  it  a  reputation  among  men,  who  have  converted  it  into 
various  ornaments  —  bracelets,  necklaces,  and  trinkets  of  every 
description.  The  coral  is  procured  during  the  three  hottest 
months.  For  this  purpose,  a  machine  is  employed,  composed  of 
two  heavy  sticks  placed  crosswise  ;  a  net  in  the  form  of  an  open 
purse  is  attached  to  the  extremities  of  each  stick.  The  fisher- 
men drag  this  machine  across  the  rocks  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water.  The  stalks  of  the  coral,  with  which  it  comes  in  contact, 
break,  and  the  branches  fall  into  the  nets,  or  are  caught  on  the 
tow  with  which  the  wooden  crossbars  are  enveloped.  The  frag- 
ments, which  are  detached  and  remain  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
are  obtained  by  the  fishermen,  who  dive  in  search  of  them  when 
they  are  not  at  too  great  a  depth.  This  exploration,  which  is 
pursued  especially  towards  the  east  around  the  large  islands,  and 
in  the  straits,  is  nowhere  of  more  importance  than  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa,  (Algeria,)  whither  it  every  year  attracts  many 
hundred  boats. 

A  still  more  important  fishery,  which  is  prosecuted  through- 
out the  Western  Mediterranean,  is  that  of  the  tunny,  a  large  fish 


Tunny. 

22* 


258  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

from  three  to  six  feet  or  more  in  length,  weighing  sometimes 
many  hmidred  pounds,  and  whose  flesh,  of  excellent  quality,  is 
eaten  fresh,  salted,  or  prepared  with  oil.  Issuing  in  the  spring 
from  the  depths  of  the  sea,  these  fish  coast  along  the  shores  in  in- 
numerable legions,  and  advantage  is  taken  of  this  opportunity  for 
capturing  them.  The  fishery  of  the  tunny  is  conducted  in  two 
different  ways  —  by  the  thonaire,  or  by  the  madrague.  For  the 
former,  boats  ranged  in  a  circle  around  the  shoal  of  tunnies,  whose 
approach  has  been  signalized,  encompass  these  animals  with  nets, 
whilst  they,  intimidated  by  the  noise,  and  increasing  their  speed 
in  proportion  as  they  find  themselves  contracted  in  a  narrower 
space,  in  vain  strike  the  boats  with  their  tails,  and  are  finally 
drawn  near  the  shore  and  killed  by  blows  of  the  boathooks.  The 
madrague  is  a  kind  of  enclosure  constructed  in  the  sea,  a  perfect 
labyrinth  of  nets,  into  which  the  tunnies,  as  they  glide  along  the 
bank,  are  directed  by  a  succession  of  avenues  leading  to  the 
chamber  of  death,  whence  they  cannot  make  their  escape,  and 
where  they  are  killed.  The  troops  of  tunnies  are  usually  pre- 
ceded by  sardines  and  followed  by  dolphins. 

The  Mediterranean  seems  also  to  be  the  native  element  of  the 
anchovies  —  small  fish  of  the  same  family  as  the  sardines  and  her- 
rings. The  anchovies  have  always  been  to  the  nations  of  the 
Mediterranean  what  the  sardine  is  to  the  populations  of  the  coasts 
of  the  ocean.  Those  of  Provence,  (between  the  Gulfs  of  Lyons 
and  Genoa,)  are  thought  to  possess  a  superiority  over  all  others. 
The  heads  of  these  fish  are  cut  off*,  and  the  bodies,  packed  in 
brine,  are  annually  transported  in  enormous  cargoes  to  the  neigh- 
boring market  of  Beaucaire,  whence  they  are  diff*used  throughout 
the  world. 

Among  the  various  kinds  of  fish  should  be  mentioned  two,  cele- 
brated even  in  the  times  of  the  Romans  —  the  common  murcena,  a 
carnivorous  and  voracious  fish,  of  elongated  form,  which  was  so 
highly  appreciated  by  the  wealthy  senators  of  Rome,  that  one  of 
them,  Pollio,  was  base  enough  to  fatten  them  in  his  fish  ponds 
with  the  flesh  of  his  unfortunate  slaves ;  and  the  rouget  grondin, 
or  red  gurnet,  with  varigated  reflections,  a  delicious  fish,  for 
which  these  same  Romans  incurred  the  most  foolish  expenses ; 
they  nourished  them  in  ponds,  and  had  them  conducted  through 


THE  CONTINENT    OF  EUEOPE.  259 

small  channels  even  under  their  banqueting  tables,  in  order  to  be 
sure  of  eating  them  fresh. 

The  Eastern  Mediterranean  is  a  basin  generally  as  placid  as 
the  western  portion,  and  where  the  tides  are  likewise  almost  in- 
significant. It  forms  at  the  south,  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  the 
Gulf  of  Sid'ra,  and  Gulf  of  Ca'bes  —  labyrinths  of  shoals  and 
sand  banks,  on  which  ships  are  in  danger  of  striking  and  perish- 
ing. Upon  the  coast  of  Europe  it  forms  a  very  great  number  of 
distinct  seas,  of  which  we  shall  speak  in  detail. 

Adriatic  Sea,  or  Gulf  of  Venice.  —  You  will  first  ob- 
serve on  the  map  a  vast  gulf  which  penetrates  deeply  into  the 
land,  forming  in  its  southern  part  a  broad  strait,  that  of  Otranto  ; 
this  is  the  Adriatic  Sea,  or  Gulf  of  Venice,  all  the  north-west- 
ern part  of  which  is  encumbered  by  earthy  deposits,  forming 
salt  marshes  or  lagoons,  and  sandy  islands,  on  which  is  built  the 
celebrated  city  which  has  given  its  name  to  the  gulf. 

In  this  sea,  as  likewise  throughout  the  Mediterranean,  are 
found  many  cuttle  fish,  (of  which  we  have  spoken  elsewhere.) 
The  black  liquid,  with  which  this  animal  obscures  the  water  to 
escape  its  enemies,  is  much  used  in  Europe.  Being  dried,  it- 
furnishes  a  brown  color,  which  is  employed  in  painting  under 
the  name  of  sepia.  There  also  are  obtained  the  largest  oysters 
in  Europe,  many  anchovies,  tunnies,  and  machereL 

Ionian  Sea.  —  The  Ionian  Sea,  south  of  the  preceding, 
abounds  in  tunnies  and  swordfish.  The  latter,  declared  enemies 
of  the  tunnies,  sometimes  attain  a  length  of  18  or  20  feet,  and 
a  weight  of  400  pounds.  They  are  especially  remarkable  for 
a  muzzle  armed  with  a  kind  of  solid  blade,  which  has  entitled 
them  to  the  epithet  of  sword  of  the  sea,  and  with  which  they 
defend  themselves  against  their  enemies.  The  agility  with  which 
they  are  endowed,  and  the  weapon  with  which  they  are  provided, 
render  the  pursuit  of  them  difficult,  and  even  dangerous.  They 
often  break  the  nets  of  the  fishermen,  who  are  obliged  to  harpoon 
them  in  the  same  manner  as  the  whale.  Their  flesh  is  good,  and 
may  be  preserved  with  salt. 

This  sea  forms  two  remarkable  and  variously  celebrated  gulfs. 
At  the  east,  the  Gnlf  of  Corinth,  over  which  regular  breezes, 


L 


260  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

blowing  in  different  directions,  twice  in  twenty-four  hours,  drive 
ships  from  west  to  east  from  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  mid- 
night, and  from  east  to  west  during  the  night  and  early  morning. 
At  the  west,  the  Gulf  of  Taranto,  whence  the  ancients  procured 
the  moUusk,  in  the  interior  of  which  was  found  a  small  sack, 
containing  a  coloring  substance,  that  they  employed  in  impart- 
ing a  purple  dye  to  the  richest  stuffs.  At  the  present  day 
diligent  search  is  made  for  the  prima  marina,  one  of  the  largest 
bivalvous  (two  shelled)  moUusca,  which  yields  a  species  of  long 
reddish  silk,  so  soft  and  fine  that  it  is  woven  in  Italy  into  fabrics 
of  admirable  delicacy. 

The  Archipelago.  —  Farther  east,  between  the  European 
continent  and  Asia  Minor,  is  the  Archipelago,  (or  chief  sea,) 
studded  with  islands,  whence  we  commonly  designate  any  sea 
which  is  in  like  manner  interspersed  with  numerous  bodies  of 
land.  As  we  have  already  stated,  it  is  in  these  regions  and  on 
the  coasts  of  Syria  that  divers  obtain  the  finest  sponges  with 
which  commerce  supplies  us.  To  enable  one  to  see  them  dis- 
tinctly, the  water  must  be  calm,  and  not  more  than  30  feet  in 
depth.  This  fishery  is  attended  with  considerable  danger,  and 
not  without  emotion  does  one  behold  two  men  set  forth  in  a  little 
boat,  naked,  and  armed  only  with  a  large  knife  attached  to  their 
leather  girdle.  They  dive  alternately,  and  soon  reappear,  usually 
bringing  in  the  hand  a  sponge.  At  night  they  return  home,  ex- 
hausted with  fatigue,  bleeding  at  the  nose  and  ears,  and  esteeming 
themselves  fortunate  to  have  escaped  the  sharks. 

Sea  of  Mar'mora.  —  This  placid  and  tranquil  sea,  whose 
shores  are  bordered  with  country  seats,  is  situated  north-east 
of  the  Archipelago.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  principal  of 
its  islands,  where  great  quarries  of  white  marble  (marmor) 
are  still  explored,  as  also  a  species  of  clayey  earth  known  by  the 
name  of  sea  foam,  of  which  pipes  are  made,  celebrated  through- 
out the  world. 

At  the  entrance  and  outlet  of  this  sea  are  found  two  famous 
straits,  which,  by  formidable  fortifications,  prohibit  the  approach 
of  men-of-war  —  the  Strait  of  Dardanelles,  usually  covered  with 
mercliant  vessels  and   which  resembles  a  broad  and  beautiful 


THE   CONTINENT  OF   EUROPE.  261 

river,  that  can  easily  be  crossed  by  an  expert  swimmer,  (a  feat 
which  was  accomplished  by  the  celebrated  poet  Byron  ;)  and  the 
Strait  of  Constantinople,  with  which  no  other  can  be  compared 
in  the  beauty  and  picturesqueness  of  its  shores,  as  well  as  in  the 
safety  of  its  anchorage ;  but  the  current  is  so  rapid  in  this  chan- 
nel that  it  can  only  be  ascended,  when  a  vessel  seeks  to  enter  the 
Black  Sea,  by  the  aid  of  a  violent  wind  or  powerful  steam-tug. 

The  Black  Sea.  —  Why  it  is  called  the  Black  Sea  is  un- 
known. It  is  far  from  being  disagreeable  or  dangerous.  It  was 
at  first  called  axenos  (inhospitable)  by  the  Greeks ;  but  on  fur- 
ther acquaintance  with  it  they  changed  its  name  to  euxinos, 
(hospitable.)  Probably  no  sea  of  equal  extent  is  more  safe.  In 
winter  it  is  bordered  with  a  thick  layer  of  ice,  which  sometimes 
extends  to  a  great  distance  from  the  shore. 

The  Black  Sea  teems  with  fish;  there  are  found  sardans, 
which  differ  little  from  the  tunny,  mackerel,  turhots,  sharks,  &c. 
The  most  important  fisheries  are  carried  on  in  the  limans,  a  species 
of  fresh  water  lakes,  which  form  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  that 
empty  at  the  north  of  this  sea.  These  rivers  drift  a  considerable 
quantity  of  slime,  which  their  turbid  waters,  driven  by  the  waves, 
deposit  in  front  of  the  lake,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  by 
degrees  a  tongue  of  land,  usually  verdant,  and  which  protects  the 
liman  from  the  invasions  of  the  sea,  only  leaving  an  aperture 
through  which  the  waters  of  the  river  can  escape.  The  limans 
furnish  the  neighboring  populations  with  an  abundant  supply  of 
one  of  the  articles  most  indispensable  to  life,  viz.,  salt,  which 
crystallizes  of  itself  during  the  heat  of  summer,  and  is  collected 
among  the  mire  on  the  borders  of  ponds. 

Sea  of  Azof.  —  This  little  sea,  connected  with  the  preceding 
by  the  Strait  of  Yenikale,  is  not  more  than  30  feet  in  depth, 
and  only  7  throughout  the  northern  part,  where  the  ports  are 
situated  whence  so  much  grain  is  exported  to  Europe.  It  is 
frozen  from  November  to  April.  Its  waters,  brackish,  rather  than 
salt,  are  extremely  fruitful  in  fish.  They  retreat  in  summer, 
when  the  mire  is  left  bare  for  a  breadth  of  several  leagues  ; 
thence  arise  dangerous  fevers,  and  the  name  of  Putrid  Sea, 
which  is  given  to  the  western  gulf.     Much  salt  is  obtained  from 


i 


262  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

this  sea.  Its  navigation  is  moreover  dangerous,  on  account  bf 
the  shoals,  notwithstanding  the  lighthouses  and  floating  beacons 
which  the  government  has  established  there. 

The  boundaries  of  Asia  and  Europe,  on  the  land  side,  have 
already  been  defined. 

Sect.  2.  Peninsulas  of  Europe. — The  peninsulas  of 
Europe  are  not  only  more  numerous,  but  they  are  more  important, 
than  those  of  Asia,  since  they  compose  nearly  a  fourth  part  of 
the  entire  continent,  while  in  Asia  they  constitute  only  a  fifth. 
They  are  generally  much  more  indented,  and  their  form  and 
situation  ofi*er  greater  advantages. 

Scandinavia.  —  The  great  peninsula  of  Scandinavia,  be- 
tween the  Baltic,  the  Arctic,  and  the  North  Sea,  bears  some 
analogy  to  Kamtchatka,  but  it  inclines  towards  the  south-west 
and  the  centre  of  Europe,  and  is  infinitely  better  sheltered  and 
less  cold. 

The  aspect  of  this  country  is  generally  that  of  an  immense 
forest,  with  here  and  there  cleared  districts,  especially  towards 
the  south.  This  aspect,  however,  varies  considerably  in  different 
localities.  The  western  portion,  which  extends  from  Cape  North 
to  The  Naze,  and  which  bears  the  name  of  Norway,  is  a 
country  almost  entirely  covered  with  mountains,  which,  instead 
of  valleys,  have  at  the  west  a  multitude  of  fiords — long  arms  of 
the  sea  between  perpendicular  rocks,  by  means  of  which  the 
waves  and  fish  of  the  ocean  penetrate  even  to  the  foot  of  the 
snowy  summits,  and  whose  shores  and  margins  are  occupied  by 
towns  built  of  wood,  or  by  isolated  cottages.  The  eastern  part, 
known  under  the  name  of  Sweden,  is  composed  chiefly  of  plains, 
more  or  less  cultivated,  or  covered  with  forests. 

The  climate,  generally  cold,  becomes  more  and  more  severe  as 
we  advance  towards  the  north  of  the  peninsula  into  the  country 
called  Lapland,  where  the  summer  scarcely  lasts  two  months  and 
a  half,  during  which  the  vegetation  develops  with  such  rapidity, 
that  the  grass  may  literally  he  seen  to  grow  during  the  first  warm 
days.  These  summers,  brief  as  they  are,  are  rendered  very  hot 
by  the  length  of  the  days,  the  sun  remaining  above  the  horizon 
for  several  weeks  in  succession.  The  inhabitants  are  then  incom- 
moded, principally  in  the  vicinity  of  the  marshes  and  woods,  by 


J 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  263 

innumerable  swarms  of  gnats,  almost  imperceptible  to  the  eye, 
but  with  an  envenomed  sting.  In  the  winter,  on  the  contrary, 
the  sun  is  invisible  during  the  same  length  of  time ;  but  the  gloom 
of  this  long  night  is  relieved  by  the  very  brilliant  aurorce  horea- 
le$,  or  by  the  brightness  of  the  moon,  which  furnishes  a  sufficient 
degree  of  light  for  the  performance  of  all  indispensable  occupa- 
tions. During  these  rigorous  winters,  the  sky  is  almost  always 
serene,  and  a  solid  and  permanent  snow  facilitates  travelling  in 
sledges ;  thus,  in  winter,  visits  are  chiefly  exchanged,  and  great 
journeys  undertaken,  which  are  accomplished  with  extreme  ra- 
pidity. In  short,  the  climate  of  Scandinavia  is  much  less  severe 
than  that  of  Asia  in  the  same  latitude.  This  is  particularly  ap- 
parent in  Norway,  whose  coast,  protected  from  the  north-east 
winds  by  high  mountains,  is  tempered  by  the  proximity  and  cur- 
rents of  the  ocean.  Thus,  while  in  Siberia  all  cultivation  ceases 
beyond  the  GOtli  degree,  in  Norway  the  fields  are  sown  as  far 
as  the  70th,  and  the  sea  does  not  freeze  around  North  Cape, 
situated  even  beyond  that  point. 

Minerals,  principally  iron,  copper,  and  silver,  are  mined  in 
Scandinavia,  forming  one  of  its  principal  resources.  We  shall 
refer  to  them  in  connection  with  the  mountains  of  this  country. 

Vegetables.  —  The  vegetation  is  naturally  limited,  in  conformity 
with  the  climate  of  the  country.  Apples,  pears,  cherries,  and 
other  fruits  of  temperate  Europe,  thrive,  however,  in  the  southern 
part  of  Sweden,  and  on  the  sheltered  coasts  of  Norway.  Farther 
north,  all  fruit  trees  cease  to  prosper ;  but  as  if  to  indemnify 
these  unfortunate  regions,  divine  Providence  has  disseminated  in 
these  latitudes  a  great  variety  of  blackberries,  (or  mulberries  — 
rubus,)  whose  delicious  fruits  would  be  eaten  with  pleasure  even 
in  our  countries.  The  blackberry  of  the  poles,  among  others, 
yields  a  sweet,  aromatic,  and  refreshing  berry,  which  partakes 
of  the  character  of  both  the  strawberry  and  the  raspberry, 
and  of  which  the  inhabitants  make  delicious  conserves  and 
beverages. 

Wheat  and  other  cereals  succeed  moderately  well  in  a  portion 
of  Scandinavia.  Farther  north  only  barley  is  sown,  and  even 
that  does  not  every  year  reach  its  maturity ;  in  most  seasons,  it 
is  necessary  to  cut  it  when  green,  and  complete  its  ripening  m  an 


264  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

oven.  This  humble  grain,  which  prospers  in  all  climates,  is  One 
of  the  most  precious  gifts  wliich  Providence  has  bestowed  upon 
the  Scandinavians.  It  is  the  only  one  which  can  attain  its 
growth  during  the  short  summers  of  Lapland,  of  which  it  con- 
stitutes the  sole  crop.  Elsewhere,  as  in  Germany,  or  England, 
the  greater  part  of  the  barley  is  employed  in  the  preparation  of 
beer ;  here,  however,  it  is  used  for  bread.  If  the  year  is  poor, 
and  the  barley  does  not  ripen,  great  sufferings  result  in  conse- 
quence, and  the  deficiency  must  be  supplied  by  a  bitter  bread, 
made  of  the  tender  and  inner  bark  of  the  young  pines,  or  by 
that  of  a  superior  quality,  which  can  be  prepared  of  the  ground 
Iceland  moss. 

The  mosseSf  or  more  strictly  speaking,  the  lichens,  are,  in  fact, 
another  precious  resource  with  which  the  Creator  has  endowed 
the  poor  inhabitants  of  these  countries.  That  which  is  commonly 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Iceland  moss  (from  the  name  of  a 
large  island,  of  which  we  shall  speak  hereafter)  may  be  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  bread,  after  being  soaked  in  water,  in  order  to 
remove  its  bitter  taste,  and  then  dried  and  reduced  to  powder. 
Sometimes  it  is  cut  up,  and  boiled  in  three  or  four  successive 
waters,  to  extract  its  harshness  and  purgative  quality  ;  it  is  then 
cooked  with  milk,  and  when  cold,  forms  an  excellent  and  very 
nourishing  jelly.  It  also  furnishes  a  remedy  for  coughs;  and 
it  may  be  employed  in  the  composition  of  sea  bread,  because 
neither  worms  nor  the  salt  air  has  any  influence  on  the  lichen. 
The  very  existence  of  the  Laplander  may  be  said  to  depend  upon 
the  reindeer  moss.  This  lichen  covers  entire  leagues  of  sterile 
land,  springing  up  spontaneously  where  no  other  plant  could  exist ; 
the  reindeer,  gifted  by  Providence  with  an  extraordinary  acute- 
ness  of  scent,  easily  recognizes  the  presence  of  this  alimentary 
substance,  even  when  it  is  buried  beneath  several  feet  of  snow ; 
by  scraping  with  its  feet,  and  digging  with  its  muzzle,  it  succeeds 
in  reaching  the  plant  upon  which  it  subsists. 

To  conclude  the  enumeration  of  the  principal  alimentary  plants 
of  these  regions,  we  must  mention  the  angelica,  which  is  culti- 
vated in  our  gardens,  but  which  there  grows  wild  in  the  moun- 
tains.   We  eat  its  green  stalks,  preserved  in  sugar  j  whereas  the 


THE  CONTINENT   OP   EUROPE. 


265 


Laplanders  peel  it  and  eat  it  raw  while  it  is  yet  tender.  They, 
however,  prefer  its  root,  possessing  a  pungent  odor  and  a  sweet, 
somewhat  acidulated,  and  hot  taste.  They  dig  it  before  the  stalk 
is  grown ;  dry  it,  and  chew  it  instead  of  tobacco,  regarding  it, 
moreover,  as  an  excellent  preventive  against  all  kinds  of  maladies. 


Angelica. 

Nor  are  these  all  the  useful  plants  of  Scandinavia.  We  have 
yet  to  speak  of  its  magnificent  woods,  vast  quantities  of  which  it 
annually  exports  to  the  principal  seaports  of  the  west.  Norway, 
in  particular,  furnishes  England  with  the  best  wood  for  naval 
purposes  —  one  variety  of  pine,  especially,  (known  by  the  names 
of  Sylvester  pine,  pine  of  the  north,  pine  of  Riga,  and  Scotch 
pine,)  is  considered  to  be  peculiarly  adapted  for  ship  building, 
and  preferable  to  any  other  for  the  masting  of  vessels.  Its  per- 
fectly straight  trunk  often  rises  to  the  height  of  a  hundred  feet 
without  a  branch,  and  terminates  in  a  pyramidal  summit.  It  is 
23 


266 


THE   GEOGRAPHY   OF   NATURE. 


brought  to  us  from  all  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Baltic 
Sea.  The  jir  trees,  which  form  superb  forests,  remarkable  for 
the  absence  of  all  other  vegetation,  are  still  more  gigantic,  and 
attain  from  150  to  180  feet  in  elevation.  These  furnish  very 
fine  timber,  also  much  pitch  and  tar,  which  latter  substance  is 
employed  in  tarring  ropes  and  calking  ships. 

Another  tree  which  is  also  of  great  beneft  to  the  regions  of  the 
north,  is  the  birch,  the  most  northern  tree  which  exists,  but  which, 
more  and  more  knotty  and  stunted  in  proportion  as  we  approach 
the  pole,  finally  ceases  to  grow  towards  the  70th  degree  of  lati- 
tude. It  renders  the  most  signal  services  in  all  these  countries, 
notwithstanding  the  softness  of  its  wood ;  the  young  branches  are 


Birch. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  267 

used  for  making  baskets  and  brooms;  a  very  tolerable  paper 
may  be  manufactured  of  the  different  coatings  of  its  bark ;  it  is 
employed  for  covering  cabins,  and  in  time  of  dearth  the  inner 
pulp  is  eaten  instead  of  bread ;  the  leaf  yields  a  dye,  the  sap  a 
fermented  liquor  in  use  throughout  the  north,  and  the  charcoal 
may  be  used  in  the  composition  of  printer's  ink ;  these  beautiful 
trees  also  serve  to  adorn  the  landscapes,  which  without  them 
would  be  absolutely  gloomy  and  desolate. 

The  animals  of  Scandinavia  do  not  present  the  same  attraction 
of  novelty  possessed  by  most  of  its  plants.  They  are  already 
almost  all  known  to  us.  Our  domestic  animals  would  thrive 
even  in  Lapland ;  but  their  place  is  supplied  by  the  reindeer, 
which  renders  even  greater  services  to  the  Laplanders  than 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Siberia.  The  fur-clad  animals,  —  elks 
and  gluttons, — of  which  we  have  also  spoken  in  connection  with 
Siberia,  have  become  rare.  This  is  not,  however,  the  case  with 
the  wolves  and  hears,,  which,  unfortunately,  are  very  abundant. 


Bear. 

The  skin  of  the  latter  is  one  of  the  most  useful  peltries  of  the 
northern  countries ;  of  it  are  manufactured  mattresses,  bonnets, 
muffs,  robes,  gloves,  carriage  carpets,  &c.  A  curious  little  animal 
of  these  regions  is  the  lemming,  a  species  of  rat,  of  the  field  mouse 
genus.  This  rodent  inhabits  the  mountains  of  Lapland,  where 
each  family  digs  itself  a  burrows  At  irregular  periods,  and,  as  it 
appears,  especially  at  the  approach  of  the  severe  winters,  of 
which  they  seem  to  have  a  presentiment,  the  lemmings  assemble 


268 


THE  GEOGRAPHY   OF  NATURE. 


in  immense  numbers  in  certain  districts,  and  emigrate  in  a  body 
to  the  countries  where  a  less  rigorous  season  awaits  them.  Formed 
in  dense  columns,  which  seem  to  march  parallel  with  each 
other,  they  direct  their  course  in  a  straight  line  to  the  end  of  their 


Lemming. 


journey.  Nothing  arrests  their  progress ;  rivers  are  crossed  by 
swimming,  and  mountains  climbed;  throughout  the  night  and 
morning,  these  animals  pursue  their  route ;  they  encamp  during 
the  day,  and  in  whatever  field  they  chance  to  take  up  their  quar- 
ters, every  thing  is  ravaged  as  if  by  fire.  These  migrations  are 
sometimes  vei-y  long ;  and  scarcely  do  a  hundredth  part  regain 
their  primitive  country,  such  havoc  is  made  among  them  by  beasts 
of  prey. 

Besides  various  birds  of  prey,  Scandinavia  produces  also  con- 
siderable quantities  of  wild  geese,  whose  feathers  and  flesh  are 
highly  appreciated,  and  flocks  of  swans,  the  largest  and  most 
beautiful  of  the  swimming  birds  of  Europe.     My  readers  are 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE.  269 

doubtless  acquainted  with  its  white  plumage,  the  grace  with  which 
it  swims,  and  its  maternal  solicitude  for  its  young,  which  it  carries 
on  its  back  until  they  are  in  a  condition  to  swim.  When  a  winter 
threatens  to  be  severe,  the  swans  quit  the  northern  regions  for 


Swan. 

more  southern  and  warmer  climes.  The  flesh  is  tough,  and  sel- 
dom eaten,  but  their  down,  of  extreme  delicacy,  is  of  considerable 
value.     Much  use  is  also  made  of  the  swan  skin  instead  of  fur. 

But  of  all  the  birds  of  this  species,  the  most  invaluable  to  these 
regions  is  the  eider  duck,  which  is  an  important  object  of  pursuit 
on  the  coasts  of  Norway  and  the  neighboring  islands.  The  eider 
skins  are  used  for  making  under  garments,  which  in  these  rude 
climates  serve  as  an  admirable  protection  against  the  cold ;  and 
these  birds  also  furnish  every  year,  without  any  sensible  depriva- 
tion, an  enormous  quantity  of  the  finest  down.  This  precious 
substance  is,  at  the  same  time,  so  firm  and  so  elastic,  that  two 
handfuls  are  sufficient  to  wad  a  coverlet,  which  combines  with  ex- 
treme lightness  a  greater  warmth  than  that  of  the  best  woollen 
covering.  Thus  the  principal  occupation  of  the  inhabitants  is 
the  collection  of  this  indispensable  article ;  and  to  obtain  it 
they  shrink  from  no  danger,  scaling  abrupt  rocks  at  the  peril  of 
life,  or  suspending  themselves  by  ropes,  in  order  to  descend  to  the 
cavities  where  the  eider  has  established  her  nest.  These  nests 
are  a  kind  of  property  to  the  peasants,  and  each  is  permitted  to  en- 
joy unmolested  the  produce  of  those  which  are  deposited  on  his 
own  land.  They  are  constructed  of  sea-weed,  and  lined  with  a 
23* 


270  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE.  ^ 

very  fine  down,  which  the  female  plucks  from  her  breast.  The 
hunter,  gently  lifting  the  bird  from  its  nest,  possesses  himself  of 
the  down  and  eggs,  leaving  one  of  the  latter,  however,  lest  the 
poor  mother  should  abandon  the  brood.  This  theft  is  repeated 
several  times,  until  the  male  is  compelled  to  strip  his  own  breast 
for  the  sake  of  his  little  ones.  Then,  at  length,  the  pair  are  suf- 
fered to  hatch  their  young  in  peace,  and  seem  to  cherish  no  rec- 
ollection of  past  wrongs.  One  man  may  in  a  single  year  amass 
from  50  to  100  pounds  of  down.  Government  bestows  particular 
attention  upon  the  preser^^ation  of  these  precious  birds,  and  a  law 
imposes  a  heavy  fine  upon  any  person  who  kills  one  of  them. 

The  population,  of  a  fair  complexion,  with  blue  eyes,  and  of  lofty 
stature,  is  courageous,  proud,  loyal,  and  hospitable,  but  by  no 
means  numerous.  The  peasants  are  very  well  informed,  espe- 
cially in  Norway,  where  their  manners  are  preserved  more  pure 
than  in  Sweden.  In  every  village  there  is  a  school,  and  for  the 
inhabitants  scattered  among  the  mountains  there  are  itinerant 
teachers,  who  spend  a  week  alternately  in  one  house  and  another 
for  the  purpose  of  imparting  the  first  rudiments  of  education  to 
the  children,  whose  future  progress  is  superintended  by  their 
parents.  Few  people  evince  such  a  decided  taste  for  reading. 
No  habitation  is  so  poor  that  it  does  not  contain  a  Bible,  a  col- 
lection of  psalms,  and  a  few  prayer  books ;  and  although  often  at  8 
or  10  leagues  distance  from  a  church,  rarely  does  any  family  fail 
to  attend  divine  service,  both  winter  and  summer.  All  the  Scan- 
dinavians belong  to  the  Protestant  faith,  and  are  endowed  with 
a  religious  sentiment,  less  enlightened  perhaps  than  zealous,  but 
at  all  events  very  remarkable. 

The  Laplanders,  who,  few  in  number,  (9000,)  occupy  the  north 
of  the  peninsula,  are  of  Mongolian  origin,  and  present  a  complete 
contrast  to  the  Scandinavians  in  their  small  stature,  yellowish 
skin,  and  smooth,  black,  and  shining  hair.  They  subsist  princi- 
pally on  the  milk  and  flesh  of  the  reindeer,  and  upon  fish  or 
game.  Of  this  milk,  which  is  very  thick  and  nourishing,  they 
make  butter,  which  is  of  inferior  quality,  and  cheese  so  rich  that 
it  bums  like  oil.  In  winter  each  family  kills  one  or  two  rein- 
deer a  week.  In  summer  they  regale  themselves  upon  the  epi- 
dermis of  the  pine  or  birch,  saturated  with  oil,  or  upon  the  stalks 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  271 

of  the  angelica.  They  are  passionately  fond  of  tobacco,  as  like- 
wise of  tallow,  oil,  and  the  frozen  blood  of  the  reindeer.  Their 
chief  pleasure  consists  in  apathetic  indolence,  and  if  they  have 
tobacco  to  smoke,  or  a  glass  of  brandy  to  sip,  no  one  experiences 
less  than  they  the  miseries  of  this  world,  or  anxieties  for  the 
future. 

The  Laplanders  are  strong  and  robust.  They  are  inured  to 
hardships  from  their  birth ;  the  infant  being  placed  on  a  bed  of 
moss,  in  a  wooden  cradle,  the  mother  carries  this  cradle  on  her 
back,  plants  it  like  a  stake  in  the  midst  of  the  snow,  or  deposits  it 
near  the  hearth  amid  clouds  of  smoke.  Many  of  these  children 
die  for  want  of  care  or  medical  aid ;  but  those  who  survive  enjoy 
vigorous  health.  The  dwellings  of  the  Laplanders  are  cabins  of 
pine  wood  stuffed  with  moss.  In  the  centre  is  the  hearth,  where 
they  maintain  a  fire  during  nearly  the  whole  year,  and  whence 
the  smoke  escapes  through  an  aperture  made  in  the  roof.  The 
low  and  narrow  door  of  the  cabin  has  a  southern  exposure.  They 
pursue  the  chase  shod  with  clogs  of  f;r  wood  three  feet  in  length, 
rising  in  points  at  the  two  extremities,  and  bring  back  peltries, 
which  afford  them  a  profitable  trade. 

The  Norwegian  and  Swedish  governments  have  spared  no 
pains  in  imparting  the  gospel  to  the  Laplanders,  and  giving  them 
elementary  instruction.  Parishes  have  been  founded  among 
them,  and  provided  with  pastors,  or  missionaries,  and  catechists, 
who  address  the  Laplanders  in  their  own  tongue,  and  who,  more 
effectually  to  combat  their  superstition  and  idolatry,  share  their 
mode  of  life  and  their  numerous  privations.  Fixed  schools  and 
itinerant  teachers  have  been  established  in  these  different  parishes, 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  Laplandei's  have  continued  nomadics, 
with  the  exception  of  some  few  who  are  located  farther  south,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  some  Swedish  colonists.  Among  the  nomad- 
ics may  be  distinguished  the  Laplanders  of  the  mountains,  who 
roam  throughout  the  year  with  their  reindeer,  pass  the  winter  in 
the  low  country,  and  then  gradually  ascend  in  the  direction  of 
the  mountains,  whither  they  resort  during  the  summer  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  excellent  pasturage  there  afforded,  and  more 
especially  to  avoid  the  cruel  attacks  of  the  gnats  and  gadflies 
which  then  besiege  their  cattle  :  always  wandering  and  living  in 


272  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

tents,  these  Laplanders  lead  a  miserable  existence  and  endure 
great  privations.  The  Laplanders  of  the  forests  also  spend  the 
winter  on  the  borders  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia ;  but  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  year  they  live  in  the  woods,  having  fixed  abodes, 
and  emigrating  from  one  to  the  other  with  their  herds,  which 
are  suffered  to  graze  at  random.  They  enjoy  leisure  and  ease, 
and  have  time  for  fishing  and  recreation  ;  they  are  more  neat  in 
their  habits,  and  have  suitable  clothes  for  attending  church,  near 
which  they  almost  all  possess  a  small  house,  where  they  spend 
their  Sundays  and  feast  days.  The  reindeer  constitutes  the 
wealth  of  all  alike ;  some  raise  as  many  as  1000  or  1200 ;  he 
who  owns  but  500  is  only  a  moderate  proprietor.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  aridity  of  the  soil,  the  long  winter  storms,  and  a  sky  often 
obscured  by  heavy  clouds,  nothing  can  wean  the  Laplandei-s  from 
their  gloomy  country,  and  those  who  have  been  transported  else- 
where have  either  died  of  grief  or  speedily  returned. 

Jutland.  —  This  peninsula,  situated  between  the  Baltic  and 
the  North  Sea,  projects  frqm  south  to  north,  opposite  Norway, 
and  terminates  in  Cape  Skagen. 

Aspect.  —  With  the  exception  of  a  chain  of  sandy  hills,  which 
traverse  the  peninsula,  all  Jutland  is  composed  of  very  low  plains, 
dotted  with  lakes;  these  plains  were  formerly  almost  entirely 
covered  with  forests,  of  which  they  are  now  nearly  destitute. 
The  coasts,  which  lack  good  ports,  are  dangerous  and  fruitful  in 
shipwrecks.  The  eastern  coasts  are  very  deeply  indented  by 
gulfs  or  fiords.  In  1825  the  Lymfiord^  the  largest  among  them, 
even  submerged,  as  it  had  often  done  before,  the  narrow  strip  of 
land  which  at  the  west  separated  it  from  the  sea,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  northern  part  of  Jutland  now  forms  an  island. 

The  climate^  influenced  by  the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  is  foggy  and 
damp,  and  exposed  to  violent  winds,  which  sometimes  uproot 
entire  forests. 
■  In  minerals  it  is  almost  wholly  deficient 

Vegetation.  —  Its  principal  wealth  consists  in  vast  and  excel- 
lent pastures,  almost  as  fresh  and  green  as  the  beautiful  meadows 
of  England.  Great  quantities  of  cattle  are  raised,  which  supply 
a  part  of  the  neighboring  countries  with  butter.  Grapes  cannot 
ripen  there  —  scarcely  do  our  ordinary  fruits ;  but  cereals  succeed 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  273 

every  where,  and  yield  considerable  products.  The  Jutland  rye 
is  particularly  renowned. 

No  cereal  except  barley  can  sustain  more  severe  cold  than  the 
rye ;  it  is,  therefore,  found  in  abundance  in  all  the  countries 
which  surround  the  Baltic,  and  possessing,  as  it  does,  the  advan- 
tage of  thriving  in  thin,  sandy,  and  poor  soils,  it  furnishes  an  ex- 
cellent aliment  to  countries  which  could  maintain  very  few  inhab- 
itants without  this  gift  of  Providence. 

The  rye  bread,  on  which  about  a  third  of  the  Europeans  sub- 
sist, is  much  less  heavy  than  that  of  barley,  although  inferior  t6 
the  wheat ;  thus  in  the  countries  of  Northern  Europe,  where  rye, 
barley,  and  oats  alike  flourish,  the  rye  is  used  for  bread,  the  bar- 
ley for  beer,  and  the  oats  are  assigned  to  the  horses.  Rye  and 
wheat  are  often  sown  in  the  same  piece  of  land ;  this  mixture  is 
called  7nesUn  ;  the  bread  which  is  made  of  it  is  of  good  quality, 
and  very  nourishing.  Rye  is  also  sown  to  be  cut  like  grass ;  it 
then  furnishes  very  excellent  fodder.  The  straw,  which  is  hard, 
solid,  and  flexible,  is  used  for  tying  jip  vines  and  trees,  binding 
wheat  sheaves,  thatching  cottages,  and  making  mats,  straw 
hats,  &c. 

The  animals  of  Jutland  present  nothing  remarkable.  It  no 
longer  contains  wolves,  but  is  tolerably  provided  with  game, 
among  other  species  hares,  famed  for  their  savory  flesh.  Swans 
and  eider  ducks  live  at  liberty  in  the  fiords  of  the  north.  The 
most  celebrated  animals  of  this  country  are  the  horses  of  Ilolstein, 
(at  the  south  of  Jutland,)  which  are  large,  strong,  and  elegant, 
and  highly  esteemed  by  foreigners:  this  country  has  long  fur- 
nished the  continent  with  the  beautiful  race  of  dogs,  spotted  with 
black  and  white,  known  under  the  name  of  Danish  dogs,  and 
those  little  pug  dogs,  with  black  muzzles,  which  were  so  much  in 
vogue  in  France  sixty  years  ago. 

The  population  is  composed  of  Danes  (who  are  of  the  Scan- 
dinavian race)  towards  the  north,  and  of  Germans  at  the  south, 
(Sleswick  and  Holstein,)  —  populations  inimical  to  each  other,  and 
which  with  difficulty  maintain  a  good  understanding.  All  live 
by  agriculture  and  the  fishery  ;  their  manners  are  simple  and 
quite  pure ;  the  peasants  manufacture  their  own  garments,  furni- 
ture, and  implements,  like  the  Swedes  and  Norwegians.     Tiiey 


274  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OV   NATURE. 

are  still  better  informed  than  the  two  other  Scandinavian  nations ; 
there  is  scarcely  one  inhabitant  in  a  thousand  who  cannot  read. 
They  are  all  Protestants. 

Bretagne.  —  This  peninsula,  situated  between  the  English 
Channel  and  the  ocean,  is  a  country  of  a  generally  wild  and 
gloomy  aspect.  The  coasts,  composed  of  masses  of  granite,  bris- 
tling with  capes,  and  intersected  by  multitudinous  gulfs,  incessant- 
ly beaten  by  the  winds,  and  by  a  stormy  sea  with  enormous 
waves,  present  in  many  places  a  sinister  aspect.  Navigation  is 
rendered  dangerous  by  many  islets  and  shoals ;  good  harbors  are, 
however,  to  be  found,  in  which  excellent  seamen  are  reared.  The 
interior,  traversed  by  small  granitic  mountains  of  httle  elevation, 
constitutes  a  kind  of  plateau,  for  the  most  part  sterile,  consisting 
of  waste  lands  covered  with  heath.  Elsewhere  are  pastures,  and 
fertile  but  poorly  cultivated  fields. 

The  climate  is  quite  mild,  tempered  as  it  is  by  the  vicinity  of 
the  ocean ;  but  the  sky  is  often  gloomy  and  foggy,  and  rain  is  very 
abundant:  this  is  the  dampest  country  of  this  portion  of  the 
continent. 

With  respect  to  its  mineralogy,  it  produces  granite,  a  very  hard 
stone,  much  esteemed  for  building,  iron  ores,  a  little  pit  coal 
and  argentiferous  lead,  that  is,  lead  mixed  with  silver. 

Vegetables.  —  Bretagne,  while  it  produces  wheat  and  other 
ordinary  cereals,  may  be  said  to  excel  all  other  countries  in  oats 
and  buckwheat.  Oats,  which  succeed  in  all  temperate  climates, 
are  more  especially  the  cereal  of  the  mountainous  or  cold  countries ; 
in  this  respect  it  has  some  analogy  to  barloy.  Much  of  it  is 
given  to  horses ;  but  in  poor  countries,  like  Bretagne,  coarse  black 
bread  is  made  of  it,  which  is  not,  however,  very  substantial,  since 
it  is  estimated  that  78^  pounds  of  wheat  contain  as  much  nourish- 
ment as  100  pounds  of  oats.  By  divesting  the  grains  of  their 
hulls,  groats  are  prepared,  of  which  very  nourishing  porridges 
and  soups  are  made.  The  buckwheat,  or  black  wheat,  the  culti- 
vation of  which  was  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Saracens  or 
Arabs,  is  a  cereal  which  grows  in  all  countries,  but  especially  in 
dry  soils.  Of  it  is  made  a  black,  flat  bread,  which  is  tolerable 
when  fresh,  and  w^hich  boiled  with  milk  is  very  palatable.  Its 
grain  serves  also  for  the  food  and  fattening  of  poultry.  It  abounds 
in  Bretagne. 


THE    CONTINENT   OF   EUROPE. 


275 


The  principal  product  of  this  peninsula,  after  the  two  above 
mentioned,  is  the  jiax^  a  plant  whose  slender  stalks  are  enveloped 
in  fibres  of  which  thread  is  prepared,  which  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cloth,  laces,  and  other  delicate  fabrics.  The  flax  of 
Bretagne  is  inferior  in  quality  to  certain  foreign  flaxes,  and  unfor- 
tunately it  is  necessarily  sold  at  a  high  price ;  nevertheless  it  gives 
rise  to  a  great  commerce,  and  to  the  manufacture  of  considerable 
cloth.  The  farina  of  flax  is  much  used  in  medicine,  in  the  com- 
position of  soothing  applications.  From  the  seeds  of  this  vegeta- 
ble a  rich  oil  is  expressed,  very  much  employed  in  the  arts,  and 
particularly  in  painting.  Hemp  is  also  cultivated  quite  exten- 
sively in  Bretagne. 

The  animals  are  entitled  to  no  especial  mention ;  homed  cattle 
are  abundant,  and  furnish  butter  of  high  repute,  both  when  fresh 
and  salted ;  the  bees  also  produce  a  great  quantity  of  honey  and 
wax. 


Bretons. 


The  population^  of  Celtic  race  and  tongue,  are  generally  de- 
jected and  gloomy,  of  harsh  and  coarse  manners,  sunk  in  pro- 


276  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

found  ignorance,  and  attached  to  their  ancient  customs.  The 
Bretons  are  almost  without  exception  Catholics,  and  extremely 
devoted  to  their  religion  and  to  their  priests.  They  are  coura- 
geous, gifted  with  lively  imaginations,  and  conceal  beneath  a  stern 
and  rough  exterior  a  great  depth  of  goodness  and  sensibility. 

The  Spanish  Peninsula.  —  This  peninsula,  which  com- 
prises Spain  and  Portugal,  and  which  is  sometimes  simply 
designated  by  the  name  of  Spain,  or  the  Peninsula,  is  situated 
between  the  Bay  of  Biscay  at  the  north,  the  ocean  at  the  west, 
the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  at  the  south,  and  the  Mediterranean  at 
the  east.  It  projects  into  the  sea  a  considerable  number  of  vari- 
ously noted  capes,  the  principal  of  which  are  Cape  Finisterre  at 
the  north-west.  Cape  Roca  at  the  west.  Cape  St.  Vincent  at 
the  south-west,  those  of  Trafalgar  and  Tarifa  at  the  south, 
those  of  Gata  and  Pahs  at  the  south-east,  St.  Martin  at  the 
east,  and  Cape  Creux  at  the  north-east.  Spain  is  more  effectu- 
ally separated  from  the  rest  of  Europe  by  the  Pyrenees  Moun- 
tiiins,  which  are  difficult  of  access,  than  the  British  Isles  are  by 
the  sea;  for  in  our  day  the  ocean  unites  rather  than  divides 
nations. 

Aspect.  —  Spain  is  an  extremely  mountainous  countiy,  forming 
a  succession  of  plateaus,  which  towards  the  south  gradually  di- 
minish in  height ;  it  resembles  a  vast  fortress,  whose  most  insur- 
mountable ramparts  are  at  the  north,  and  which  offers  no  pas- 
sages of  any  great  width,  except  on  the  side  opposite  Africa.  The 
face  of  nature  in  the  greater  part  of  interior  Spain  is  uniformly 
sad  and  gloomy,  presenting  bare  and  rugged  mountains,  and  im- 
mense plains  destitute  of  trees,  —  silent,  solitary,  and  partaking 
of  the  wild  aspect  of  the  African  deserts.  Its  coasts  wear  a  much 
more  fertile  and  smiling  appearance,  varying  greatly,  however, 
from  north  to  south ;  for  on  the  borders  of  the  Gulf  of  Gascony 
the  vegetation  is  that  of  temperate  Europe,  whilst  near  the  Strait 
of  Gibraltar  it  may  be  likened  to  that  of  Northern  Africa. 

The  climate  is  temperate,  and  even  severe,  in  the  provinces  of 
the  north ;  dry  and  hot,  or  dry  and  cold,  according  to  the  seasons, 
in  the  central  plateaus,  which  are  swept  a  part  of  the  year  by 
terrible  winds ;  and  damp  and  hot  in  the  provinces  of  the  south- 
cast,  which  are  washed  by  the  sea.    This  last  portion  is  exposed  to 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  277 

the  disastrous  effects  of  the  solano,  a  hot  wind  which,  issuing 
from  Africa,  almost  instantaneously  blasts  vegetation.  It  pro- 
duces also  a  dangerous  impression  on  the  brain,  excites  the  imagi- 
nation, and  inflames  the  passions ;  and  this  is  always  the  time 
when  assassinations  and  murders  are  most  frequent. 

Minerals  are  one  of  Spain's  principal  sources  of  revenue,  (they 
are  less  abundant  in  the  western  part  of  the  Peninsula,  which 
forms  the  kingdom  of  Portugal.)  No  country  in  Europe  fur- 
nishes so  much  lead  and  mercury ;  it  produces,  besides  iron  and 
copper,  a  little  silver,  tin,  pit  coal,  and  an  abundance  of  salt,  in 
mines  or  on  the  coasts,  the  most  renowned  of  which,  that  of 
Setubal,  (Portugal,)  is  exported  in  considerable  quantities  to  the 
countries  of  the  north,  because  it  is  more  effectual  than  other  salt 
in  the  preservation  of  meat  and  fish.  Its  marble  and  alabasters 
have  a  certain  reputation.  The  products  of  the  lead  and  mercu- 
ry mines  are  both  extremely  profitable. 

Vegetables.  —  The  vegetation  differs  essentially  in  the  northern 
and  southern  portions  of  the  Peninsula,  but  it  may  be  said  to  be 
generally  that  of  the  warm  countries.  Although  agi'iculture  is 
very  much  neglected,  and  it  is  the  only  part  of  Europe  where 
entire  districts  are  left  waste,  this  fertile  country,  nevertheless, 
produces  abundance  of  wheat,  barley,  and  maize ;  many  wines, 
the  most  celebrated  of  which  are  those  of  Porto,  at  the  west, 
Xeres  and  Malaga  at  the  south,  and  Alicant  at  the  south-east ; 
and  considerable  quantities  of  fruit,  such  as  almonds,  Jigs,  raisins, 
lemons,  and  especially  oranges,  the  most  renowned  of  which  are 
those  of  Lisbon,  at  the  west,  and  Valence  at  the  east. 

The  olive  tree  is  one  of  the  most  precious  vegetables  to  the  in- 
habitants of  the  peninsula,  who  eat  its  fruits,  and  in  the  seasoning 
of  their  dishes  almost  exclusively  employ  the  olive  oil  instead  of 
butter.  This  is  a  round  and  tufted  tree,  of  medium  size,  whose 
whitish  foliage  imparts  a  monotonous  hue  to  the  landscape.  It 
flourishes  in  stony  soils  much  exposed  to  the  sun,  especially  on 
the  sides  of  hills.  The  whole  importance  of  the  olive  tree  con- 
sists in  its  fruit,  a  little  larger  than  an  acorn,  and  composed  of  a 
fleshy  substance  enclosing  a  solid  and  oblong  kernel.  The  olive 
is  preserved  while  it  is  still  green,  after  its  bitter  qualities  have 
been  removed  by  subjection,  during  two  or  three  hours,  to  the 
24 


278 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATUEE. 


action  of  a  strong  lye ;  it  is  then  left  several  days  in  fresh  water, 
and  afterwards  slightly  salted,  in  order  to  preserve  it  until  re- 
quired for  the  table.  But  this  fruit  is  chiefly  valuable  for  the  oil 
which  it  furnishes,  and  whose  place  can  be  supplied  by  no  other. 
This  oil  is  extracted  from  the  flesh  of  the  olive  by  compression. 


Olive  Tree. 


That  which  is  first  obtained,  without  the  addition  of  boiling  water, 
is  called  virgin  oil ;  the  common  oil  is  the  result  of  more  vigor- 
ous pressure.  This  tree  is  unable  to  support  the  cold ;  it  usually 
blossoms  in  May ;  the  olives  are  ripe  in  November ;  they  are 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  279 

then  beaten  down  with  poles,  for  otherwise  they  would  remain  on 
the  tree  until  spring. 

Other  interesting  vegetables,  which  are  not  peculiar  to  Spain, 
but  are  there  found  in  greater  abundance  than  elsewhere,  are  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  evergreen  oaks,  each  of  which  has  its  use.  The 
species  known  under  the  name  of  ornamental  oaks,  for  example, 
produce  sweet  acorns,  which  are  eaten  raw,  roasted  in  the  embers, 
or  boiled  like  chestnuts.  They  are  offered  as  a  treat  to  strangers, 
who  are  at  first  astonished  at  such  a  novel  entertainment,  but 
soon  become  accustomed  to  it.  These  acorns  resemble  the  hazel 
nut  in  taste ;  when  cooked  they  are  even  more  delicate.  Another 
more  valuable  species  of  evergreen  oak  is  the  cork  tree,  whose 
thick  and  elastic  bark  becomes  detached  every  ten  years,  after 
the  tree  has  attained  its  twentieth  year,  if  care  is  not  previously 
taken  to  strip  it.  This  oak,  which  grows  very  slowly,  averages 
30  feet  in  height,  is  unable  to  resist  moisture  and  severe  cold,  and 
furnishes  a  hard  wood,  inferior,  however,  to  that  of  our  oaks. 
The  bark  is  removed  in  the  months  of  July  and  August.  A  tree 
40  years  of  age  has  acquired  a  positive  commercial  value,  and 
may  yield  100  pounds  of  raw  cork  at  every  barking.  As  soon 
as  it  has  been  thus  stripped,  it  secretes  a  glutinous  sap,  which 
thickens  by  degrees,  and  in  the  course  of  8  or  10  years  forms  a 
new  bark.  Cork  serves  a  great  number  of  useful  purposes ;  it  is 
employed  for  buoying  up  the  nets  of  fishermen,  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  corks  for  all  kinds  of  vessels,  for  sustaining  young  and 
inexperienced  swimmers,  and  finally,  reduced  to  charcoal,  it  fur- 
nishes the  Spanish  black,  of  which  painters  make  use.  Another 
species,  the  oak  of  the  kermes,  which,  in  stony  and  sterile  places, 
forms  great  thickets  4  or  5  feet  high,  nourishes  a  violet-colored 
insect  of  the  size  of  a  pea,  somewhat  similar  to  the  cochineal. 
This  kermes  yields  a  superb  scarlet  color,  more  beautiful  even 
than  that  which  is  obtained  from  the  cochineal ;  but  the  latter  is 
more  abundant,  and  more  easily  procured  than  the  kermes. 

Two  other  useful  plants  are  found  chiefly  in  Spain,  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  salt  mines,  or  on  the  borders  of  the  sea.  The  es- 
parto, or  Spanish  reed,  flourishes  especially  on  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean.  Of  it  are  made  shoes,  baskets,  &c.,  which 
are  usually  termed  articles  of  esparto  worh    It  is  principally 


280  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

used  in  the  manufacture  of  mats  and  straw  matting,  or  common 
carpeting,  usually  dyed  green,  in  imitation  of  turf.  This  is 
placed  underneath  dining  tables  and  bureaus,  and  on  the  floors  of 
carriages.  Many  well-ropes  are  also  made  of  esparto,  because 
this  substance  has  the  property  of  resisting  the  action  of  water 
longer  than  the  hemp  cordage. 

These  same  maritime  countries  produce  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  salsola  (or  soda)  and  other  plants  of  the  same  nature, 
whose  ashes,  carefully  collected,  furnish  the  soda  which  is  an 
article  of  commerce,  and  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
soap,  in  the  bleaching  of  linen,  and  in  glass  ware.  It  is  of  the 
soda  called  barilla  that  the  finest  plate  glass  and  mirrors  are 
manufactured.  The  most  esteemed  is  that  which  is  exported 
from  Spain,  in  baskets  of  esparto,  and  which  is  known  under  the 
name  of  Alicant  soda.  Since  means  have  been  discovered  of 
extracting  this  substance  from  salt  water,  the  commerce  of  the 
common  soda  has  lost  much  of  its  importance. 

The  animals  of  the  Peninsula  present  no  remarkable  points 
of  interest.  Horned  cattle  are  not  as  abundant  there  as  in  the 
countries  of  the  north,  and  the  use  of  them  is  only  imperfectly 
understood  ;  insomuch  that  a  great  part  of  the  butter  consumed 
in  these  countries  is  obtained  from  Holland.  The  horses,  espe- 
cially those  of  Andalusia,  (province  at  the  south  of  Spain,)  are 
celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  their  forms,  and  for  their  spirit.  In 
the  mountainous  districts,  mules  are  preferred  for  ordinary  use, 
on  account  of  their  sureness  of  foot.  As  the  roads  are  generally 
very  poor  and  unsafe,  the  transportation  of  merchandise  is  most 
frequently  conducted  on  the  backs  of  mules,  and  muleteers  usu- 
ally contrive  to  travel  in  company,  forming  complete  caravans. 

All  of  my  readers  have  heard  of  the  merinos,  those  famous 
Spanish  sheep,  originally  from  Africa,  which  have  served  to  im- 
prove almost  all  the  races  of  sheep  in  Europe,  but  which  have 
now  lost  much  of  their  ancient  reputation.  These  sheep  are 
never  confined  in  folds  ;  in  summer  they  are  kept  in  the  moun- 
tains, and  during  the  winter  are  driven  into  the  plains,  where  an 
immense  extent  of  the  most  valuable  land  is  reserved  for  their 
use.  These  flocks  belong,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  nobles  of 
Spain,  or  to  members  of  the  high  clergy,  who  compose,  under  the 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE. 


281 


name  of  mesta,  an  association  which  has  for  centuries  enjoyed 
privileges  of  a  truly  despotic  nature.  The  mesta,  although  not 
authorized  to  traverse  cultivated  lands,  elude  the  prohibition,  and 
the  passage  of  these  flocks,  which  usually  number  10,000  sheep, 
is  a  species  of  imposition  gi'eatly  dreaded  by  the  people.  The 
Peninsula  formerly  produced  an  immense  number  of  goats,  and 
supplied  commerce  with  the  kid  skins  so  much  in  demand  for  the 
manufacture  of  gloves.  Even  now  no  country  furnishes  better 
skins,  but  the  number  of  goats  is  beginning  to  diminish  consid- 
erably ;  the  progress  of  agriculture  must  gradually  banish  from 
the  country  this  animal,  which  is  the  natural  enemy  of  cultiva- 
tion and  plantations. 

From  Spain,  also,  are  principally  obtained  the  cantharides,  a 
species  of  glittering  flies  of  a  very  beautiful  green  color,  blended 


Cantharis. 


with  gold,  and  of  a  disagreeable  odor.  These  flies  are  frequently 
used  in  medicine,  especially  for  acting  upon  the  skin  as  a  blister. 
They  usually  collect  on  ash  trees,  and  when,  by  the  odor  which 
they  exhale,  a  swarm  of  them  has  been  discovered,  cloths  are 
spread  at  the  foot  of  the  tree,  and  the  branches  shaken  at  early 
dawn,  when  the  insects,  benumbed  by  the  cold  of  night,  cannot 
fly.  The  clotlis  are  then  removed  and  plunged  into  a  bucket  of 
24* 


282 


THE  GEOGRAPHY   OF  NATURE. 


vinegar,  diluted  with  water.  This  immersion  kills  the  insects ; 
and  they  then  only  require  to  be  dried  in  a  well-aired  shed,  the 
precaution  being  taken  to  touch  them  only  with  gloved  hands. 
They  are  afterwards  preserved  from  dampness  in  jars  hermet- 
ically sealed. 

On  the  eastern  coast,  moreover,  and  in  Portugal,  silk  worms 
are  raised,  whose  products  are  very  highly  prized ;  in  the  hottest 
countries  of  the  south,  the  cochineal  is  reared  on  the  cactus, 
which  grows  wild  in  all  the  rocky  soils,  and  on  the  road  sides. 
It  is  affirmed  that  monkeys  (undoubtedly  escaped  from  Africa) 
exist  on  the  mountain  which  overlooks  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar ; 
this  is  the  only  point  in  Europe  where  they  are  to  be  met  with 
living  at  liberty. 

The  population  of  the  Peninsula  is  distinguished  by  charac- 
teristics peculiarly  its  own.  The  Spaniards  are  generally  of 
medium  size,  their  complexions  pale,  or  very  much  bronzed  by 
the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  their  eyes  and  hair  black.  They  have 
a  grave,  cold,  silent,  and  apathetic  exterior;  but  if  any  thing 
occurs  to  rouse  these  naturally  passionate  souls,  they  immediately 
abandon  themselves  to  an  all-absorbing  activity,  or  to  the  most 
violent   excesses.     They  eagerly  court  exciting  emotions,  bull 


Bull  Fight. 

fights,  or  the  execution  of  criminals,  in  default  of  the  auto-da-fe, 
or  punishments  of  heretics,  Protestants  or  Jews,  whom  modem 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUUOPE.  283 

civilization  no  longer  suffers  tliem  to  burn,  as  was  the  practice  in 
these  countries  during  many  centuries.  All  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Peninsula  are  Catholics,  and  tolerate  no  other  religion.  They 
are  extremely  superstitious  and  fanatical,  and  their  religion  con- 
sists in  little  but  external  ceremonies.  Nowhere  in  Europe  is 
instruction  more  neglected,  and  nowhere  are  so  many  beggars 
encountered.  The  Spanish  beggar,  it  is  true,  arrayed  in  his 
ragged  cloak,  presents  beneath  his  tatters  an  air  of  natural  dig- 
nity, which  somewhat  relieves  his  abject  appearance ;  but  the 
filth  and  miserable  aspect  of  the  poorer  classes  in  this  country 
render  them,  nevertheless,  painful  objects  to  behold.  Agricul- 
ture, manufactures,  and  commerce  enjoy  little  prosperity,  and 
bands  of  robbers  almost  always  infest  the  highways.  The  Por- 
tuguese are  only  distinguished  from  the  Spaniards  by  more  indo- 
lent and  corrupt  habits,  less  loyalty,  frankness,  and  dignity. 

Italy.  —  Italy,  that  peninsula  which  stretches  between  the 
Western  Mediterranean  and  the  Ionian  and  Adriatic  Seas,  is  com- 
posed of  two  principal  divisions ;  at  the  north,  a  vast  low  plain, 
of  which  we  shall  speak  hereafter,  and  farther  south  the  peninsula, 
properly  so  called,  to  which  we  shall  now  devote  our  attention  ;  a 
country  alternately  smiling  and  wild,  cut  by  detached  chains  of 
the  Apennines  into  a  multitude  of  valleys  and  maritime  plains, 
isolated  one  from  another. 

The  climate,  generally  very  mild  and  warm,  invites  to  a  life  in 
the  open  air,  and  the  dwellings  of  the  peasants,  small,  without 
windows,  and  destitute  of  order,  betoken  that  under  this  sunny 
sky  they  scarcely  enter  their  houses  except  to  sleep.  Sometimes 
a  pestilential  wind  from  Africa,  the  sirocco,  parches  the  surface 
of  the  fields,  and  enfeebles  the  frame  both  of  men  and  animals. 
The  had  air,  {malaria  aria  cottiva,)  ov  feverish  air,  desolates  most 
of  the  small  maritime  plains,  principally  on  the  western  coast. 
Independently  of  those  naturally  marshy,  like  the  Maremma  at  the 
north-west,  and  the  Pontine  3farshes  in  the  middle  of  the  western 
coast,  which  have  preserved,  notwithstanding  the  partial  drought, 
such  an  insalubrity  that  travellers  are  recommended  not  to  sleep 
while  traversing  them,  there  are  countries  which,  like  the  Cam- 
fagna  di  Roma,  (or  ancient  Latium,)  although  formerly  occu- 
pied by  towns  and  a  numerous  population,  have  become  uninhab- 


284  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

itable  during  the  summer  on  account  of  the  bad  air,  which  now 
penetrates  even  into  the  lowest  quarters  of  Rome,  The  malaria 
only  began  to  make  itself  felt  in  the  third  or  fourth  century  after 
Christ,  and  it  seldom  rises  more  than  100  or  120  feet  above  the 
plain.  It  compels  the  proprietors  or  farmers  to  reside  habitually 
on  the  heights,  whence  they  descend  only  three  times  a  year,  to 
plough,  cut  the  grass,  and  to  reap  their  harvest  —  labors  which  are 
speedily  accomplished  by  the  aid  of  workmen  whom  the  thirst 
of  gain  entices  from  the  mountains  at  a  greater  or  less  distance. 
These  laborers,  amounting  in  number  to  20,000  or  30,000,  ill 
sheltered  from  the  cold  of  the  nights  beneath  miserable  sheds,  are 
frequently  attacked  by  terrible  fevers,  and  every  day  a  large 
number  are  obliged  to  be  removed  to  the  hospitals  situated  on  the 
heights.  During  the  remainder  of  the  year  the  farms  are  only 
occupied  by  the  number  of  persons,  absolutely  indispensable  in 
the  care  of  the  crops  and  cattle.  These  unfortunate  men,  of  a 
ghastly  and  feverish  complexion,  are  truly  melancholy  objects. 

Minerals.  —  The  mineral  riches  of  Italy  consist  rather  in  stony 
than  in  metallic  substances  —  marbles,  alabasters,  lapis  lazuli, 
porphyry,  chalcedonies,  lavas,  &c.  Moreover,  no  country  is  so 
distinguished  in  the  art  of  incrustation  and  mosaic  work,  that  is, 
in  the  representation  of  all  kinds  of  flowers,  animals,  and  land- 
scapes, by  the  use  of  small  stones  of  different  colors,  whose 
artistic  combination  forms  a  picture  which  resembles  painting. 
We  shall  refer  to  them  in  connection  with  the  Apennine  Moun- 
tains. 

Vegetables.  —  Although  there  are  desert  spots,  especially  to- 
wards the  southern  extremity,  it  may  be  generally  asserted  that 
the  vegetation  of  Italy  is  magnificent  and  extremely  diversified. 
It  is  a  characteristic  feature  of  these  countries  that  the  soil  pro- 
duces a  more  abundant  crop  of  grain  and  grass  when  it  is  pro- 
tected by  trees  from  the  burning  rays  of  the  summer  sun.  Thus 
almost  every  where  vast  fields  of  wheat  may  be  seen  undulating 
beneath  the  shade  of  thousands  of  olive,  elm,  or  poplar  trees,  to 
the  very  top  of  which  climb  vigorous  vines,  which  produce  an 
abundance  of  wine  of  medium  quality.  Elsewhere  the  pine  of 
the  warm  countries  (the  pin  pignon)  extends  its  overshadowing 
boughs  without  depriving  the  vine  of  the  sun,  which  it  requires. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  285 

At  the  same  time  this  tree  yields,  in  the  seed  of  its  fruit,  sweet 
kernels^  which,  eaten  simultaneously,  serve  to  enhance  the  flavor 
of  wine,  or  which  are  used  in  the  preparation  of  various  dainties. 
Beneath  the  vine  branches,  that  wave  to  and  fro  at  the  will  of 
the  winds,  the  land,  after  the  harvesting  of  the  wheat,  produces  a 
second  crop  of  radishes  and  lupines,  the  former  serving  for  the 
nourishment  of  men  and  cattle,  and  the  lupines  taking  the  place 
of  artificial  meadows  or  fat  pasture. 

The  wheat,  which  is  cultivated  principally  in  Italy,  is  the  stiff, 
long-bearded  wheat,  and  is  particularly  in  demand  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  the  famous  Italian  pastes,  macaroni^  vermicelli^ 
&c.,  of  which  the  Italians  are  so  fond.  The  farina  of  maize,  of 
which  they  make  the  pollenta,  sl  kind  of  porridge,  very  popular 
at  the  north  of  the  peninsula,  is  also  one  of  the  principal  sources 
of  nourishment  of  the  poorer  classes. 

The  mulhe^^y  plantations  are  yearly  multiplying ;  thus  more 
than  half  of  the  silk  annually  produced  in  Europe  is  furnished 
by  Italy.  Cotton,  o?  the  herbaceous  species,  is  cultivated  in  cer- 
tain favored  portions  of  the  southern  part,  (kingdom  of  Naples.) 
Orange  and  lemon  trees  have  always  formed  an  important  part 
of  the  agricultural  industry  of  the  country.  There  are  likewise 
jig  trees,  whose  fruit  is  exported  to  a  distance. 

The  most  remarkable  animals  of  Italy  are  the  hvffaloes,  which 


Buffalo. 

Providence  seems  to  have  constituted  expressly  for  inhabiting 
the  marshes  of  the  western  coast,  and  especially  the  Pontine 
Marshes.  The  buffalo  is  stronger,  more  thick-set  in  form, 
and  larger  than  the  ox,  of  a  darker  color,  and  has  an  entirely 
J    black  head ;  it  is  dangerous  to  the  man  to  whom  it  is  not  accus- 


286  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

tomed,  and  will  run  at  him.  Its  eye  is  fierce,  and  its  hair  rough, 
like  that  of  the  wild  boar.  It  is  fond  of  lying  in  the  mud,  and 
of  spending  the  warm  hours  of  the  day  immersed  even  to  its 
neck  in  the  canals.  Its  voice  is  a  deep,  powerful,  and  somewhat 
dismal  bellow ;  its  sight,  which  is  poor,  is  more  serviceable  by 
night  than  by  day.  It  may  be  termed  the  rhinoceros  of  the  tem- 
perate countries.  It  is  employed  in  ploughing  and  in  towing  boats ; 
but  in  order  to  render  it  submissive  under  the  yoke,  it  must  be 
subjected  to  painful  operations  ;  thus,  through  its  pierced  nostrils 
is  passed  an  iron  ring,  by  which  it  may  be  seized  when  about  to 
be  attached  to  the  plough ;  moreover,  it  is  branded  with  a  hot 
iron,  that  it  may  be  recognized  when  mixed  with  the  herds  of 
another  proprietor.  The  female  yields  an  abundance  of  milk, 
which  has  a  flavor  of  musk.  In  order  to  calm  it  during  the 
process  of  milking,  the  peasant  must  chant  in  cadenced  tones  a 
strain  to  which  the  animal  is  accustomed.  At  night,  when  the 
herdsman  wishes  to  drive  the  buffaloes  out  of  the  canals,  he 
strikes  the  water  with  his  staff  and  utters  loud  cries.  At  this 
signal  the  buffalo  struggles  heavily,  and  emerges  from  its  retreat, 
completely  covered  with  mire  and  marshy  weeds.  This  animal, 
originally  from  the  East  Indies,  was  introduced  into  Europe  in 
the  sixteenth  century  by  the  Portuguese. 

Cattle  are  not  very  abundant  in  Italy.  Large  and  strong  oxen 
are  found  there  which  perform  all  the  labors,  and  migratory  or 
wandering  sheep,  which,  after  having  passed  the  winter  in  the 
plains  of  La  Puglia,  for  example,  at  the  south-east,  reascend  in 
summer  the  summits  of  the  Apennines.  These  sheep,  which  live 
the  whole  year  in  the  open  air,  and  as  it  were  at  large,  yield  wool 
of  only  a  middling  quality,  and  ai'e  very  injurious  to  agriculture. 
The  horses^  which  are  generally  slight  and  active,  are  in  no  respect 
remarkable. 

Among  the  noxious  animals  encountered  in  Italy  should  be 
mentioned  the  scorpion,  an  animal  of  the  arachnoid,  or  araneous 
order,  but  which  rather  resembles  the  crab.  Scorpions  live 
chiefly  in  the  warm  countries  ;  they  creep  on  the  earth,  in  low 
and  cool  places,  and  hide  beneath  the  stones  in  uninhabited 
houses  ;  when  they  run  they  erect  their  tails  in  a  singular  man- 
ner.    They  are  armed  with  very  strong  pincers ;  but  their  most 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  287 

formidable  weapon  is  the  curved  dart  which  terminates  their  tail, 
through  which  flows  a  venom  contained  in  an  interior  bladder. 
Their  sting  usually  produces  an  acute  inflammation,  and  even 
feverish  symptoms,  but  is  attended  with  no  serious  consequences ; 


^^ 


Scorpion. 

these  wounds  may  be  healed  by  the  use  of  volatile  alkali  applied 
to  the  spot,  and  administered  internally.  The  sting  of  the  scor- 
pions of  Africa  is  much  more  dangerous. 

Another  animal  of  the  same  species,  and  concerning  which 
many  fictitious  stories  have  been  related,  is  the  spider,  (known 
under  the  name  of  l^cosa  or  tarantula,  because  it  was  first  ob- 
served near  the  city  and  gulf  of  Taranto.)  It  is  very  large,  and 
black,  with  the  exception  of  the  under  part  of  its  body,  which  is 
red ;  its  nest,  dug  in  the  earth,  is  constructed  with  great  skill ;  it 
lies  in  ambuscade  at  the  entrance,  whence  it  darts  upon  the  insects 
which  it  perceives,  and  to  which  its  sting  is  deadly.  For  a  long 
time  it  was  believed  that  the  bite  of  the  tarantula  was  poisonous, 
and  produced  the  most  extraordinary  eflects  upon  the  men  on 
whom  it  was  inflicted :  some,  it  was  said,  laughed,  and  others  wept; 
the  former  could  not  refrain  from  singing  and  dancing,  whereas 
the  latter  were  gloomy  and  silent ;  all  alike  requiring  the  assistance 
of  music  to  effect  their  cure.  It  is  true  that  the  venom  of  the 
tarantula  is  not  unaccompanied  by  danger ;  it  causes  swellings, 
giddiness,  and  nervous  affections ;  but  the  art  of  the  physician 
Can  easily  counteract  its  effects,  and  all  that  has  been  said  relative 
to  the  employment  of  music,  as  a  means  of  recovery,  is  only  a 
fiction. 

The  population,  although  not  of  lofty  stature,  are  generally 
vigorous  and  beautifully  formed,  especially  in  the  mountains; 


288  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

thus  it  is  generally  from  among  the  peasant  men  an .  women  of 
the  environs  of  Rome  that  painters  prefer  to  select  their  models. 
The  Italians  are  preeminently  the  artistic  nation;  passionately 
fond  of  painting,  architecture,  music,  and  poetry,  they  are  pecu- 
liarly susceptible  to  the  love  of  the  beautiful.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  are  characterized  by  a  decided  tendency  to  idleness,  love  of 
pleasure,  and  great  lightness  of  manners.  Their  Christianity,  like 
that  of  the  Spaniards,  consists  in  little  else  than  external  forms  ; 
however,  they  are  much  less  superstitious,  fanatic,  and  intolerant ; 
instruction  is  also  much  more  widely  diffused,  although  it  bears 
no  comparison  with  that  which  is  enjoyed  in  the  countries  of  the 
north.  They  are,  almost  without  exception,  Catholics,  and  the 
clergy  are  powerful  and  numerous ;  but  their  Catholicism  is  too 
often  allied  to  actual  infidelity. 

The  Italians  are  naturally  sober,  full  of  intelligence,  vivacity, 
and  courage.  Unfortunately,  the  courage  which  they  appreciate 
most  highly  is  rather  that  which  consists  in  braving  danger  than 
that  which  enables  us  to  conquer  our  passions  ;  hence  that  love 
for  the  bandit  and  brigand  life  which  cannot  be  eradicated  from 
the  breast  of  this  population.  Robbery  by  open  force,  and  even 
murder,  are  not  regarded  as  crimes  ;  in  the  popular  opinion,  the 
profession  of  the  bandit  is  invested  with  grandeur,  and  indicates 
courage.  Thus  the  brigand  is  habitually  protected  from  the  police. 
"  O,  poor  man ! "  is  the  sympathizing  exclamation  of  the  crowd 
when  one  chances  to  be  arrested.  And  at  Naples  the  young  girl 
often  prefers  to  unite  her  fate  to  that  of  the  fortunate  brigand, 
rather  than  espouse  the  peaceable  husbandman.  "  He  is  a  brave 
man,"  she  says ;  "  with  him  I  shall  have  silver,  and  costly  attire ; " 
but  she  entertains  a  sovereign  contempt  for  the  pickpocket  or 
cunning  thief;  the  wealth  must  be  won  at  the  price  of  danger. 
Sometimes  the  police  are  obliged  to  negotiate  with  the  leaders  of 
the  bands,  in  order  to  set  a  limit  to  their  depredations. 

Italy  and  the  two  peninsulas  which  terminate  it  have  often 
been  compared  to  a  boot,  of  which  the  province  of  Otranto  rep- 
resents the  heel,  and  Calabria  the  foot.  These  two  small  penin- 
sulas, although  unimportant  in  themselves,  have,  however,  an 
originality  of  their  own,  and  merit  some  little  attention. 

1.   The  country  of  Otranto,  destitute  of  springs  and  streams, 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE.  289 

would  be  uninhabitable,  were  it  not  for  its  abundant  dews,  and  its 
vast  subterranean  reservoirs  of  water.  The  air  has  become  insa- 
lubrious in  many  places ;  in  this  country  the  greatest  number  of 
tarantulas  are  encountered. 

2.  Calabria  is  a  very  wild  and  mountainous  country,  celebrated 
for  its  terrible  earthquakes,  one  of  which,  that  of  February  5, 1783, 
destroyed  more  than  300  towns  and  villages,  and  caused  40,000 
individuals  to  perish,  exclusive  of  20,000  others,  who  were  the 
victims  of  contagious  maladies  which  succeeded  the  disaster.  The 
chmate  is  extremely  hot ;  Calabria  is  exposed  to  the  miasm  of 
stagnant  waters,  and  the  blast  of  the  sirocco,  which,  during  the  four 
months  that  it  prevails,  produces  sickness,  and  parches  the  land. 
The  vegetation  is  that  of  the  very  hot  climes.  The  palm,  cotton 
tree,  and  sugar  cane  there  succeed  to  perfection ;  aloes  cover  the 
arid  rocks ;  the  mulberry  tree  nourishes  many  silk  worms ;  the 
orange  and  lemon  trees  give  rise  to  an  abundant  exportation  of 
fruit  into  the  countries  of  the  north ;  and  the  olives  produce 
oil  in  such  quantities  that  it  is  preserved  in  cisterns.  But  the 
two  vegetables  which  deserve  particular  mention,  in  connection 
with  Calabria,  are  the  manna  tree  and  the  licorice.  The  manna 
exudes  naturally  through  pores  in  the  bark  of  a  species  of  ash ; 
but  usually  longitudinal  incisions  are  made  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  trunk,  through  which  the  juice  escapes,  which  hardens,  and  be- 
comes the  medicine  so  well  known  under  the  name  of  manna. 
The  manna  in  tears,  which  is  the  purest,  is  distinguished  from 
the  sorted  manna  and  the  fat  rrianna,  which  are  of  inferior 
quality.  This  is  a  very  mild  cathartic,  and  it  even  appears  that, 
in  the  countries  where  it  is  procured,  the  peasants  employ  no 
other  sugar  for  their  private  wants.  The  various  uses  of  the 
licorice  root  have  already  been  detailed;  the  sap,  after  being 
boiled  until  it  has  acquired  the  consistency  of  sirup,  is  moulded, 
especially  in  Calabria,  and  in  Spain,  into  those  rolls  of  licorice 
extract  with  which  all  are  familiar,  and  which  are  employed  even 
in  medicine. 

The  population  is  reputed  idle,  ignorant,  superstitious,  and 
vindictive.  The  Calabrians  never  travel  unarmed,  and  their 
mountain  bandits  are  particularly  renowned  for  their  invincible 
audacity. 

25 


290  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

The  Turco  Grecian  Peninsula,  comprising  Greece  and 
Turkey  in  Europe,  is  situated  between  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian 
Seas  at  the  west,  the  Archipelago  at  the  south-east,  the  Sea 
of  Marmora  and  the  Black  Sea  at  the  east.  No  other  peninsula 
of  Europe  is  indented  by  such  a  multitude  of  gulfs,  or  forms  so 
large  a  number  of  small  peninsulas,  almost  all  incHning  towards 
the  south-east,  as  if  to  place  Europe  in  easier  communication  with 
Asia,  by  the  aid  of  the  innumerable  islands  of  the  Archipelago. 

The  aspect  of  this  country  is  extremely  diversified.  It  is 
generally  very  mountainous ;  but  in  the  midst  of  its  mountains 
delightful  valleys  and  fertile  plains  disclose  themselves.  At 
the  north-east  are  found  vast  plains,  of  which  we  shall  speak 
hereafter. 

Climate.  —  This  mountainous  character  of  Turkey  in  Europe 
renders  its  temperature  less  hot  than  the  latitude  would  at  first 
seem  to  indicate.  Towards  the  north  of  the  country,  the  climate 
is  almost  cold,  and  the  air  often  unhealthy,  on  account  of  the 
numerous  marshes  ;  at  the  south,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  generally 
mild  and  agreeable. 

Minerals  are  not  wanting ;  but  they  are  scarcely  explored,  so 
great  is  the  indifference  of  the  Turkish  government  to  this  species 
of  riches. 

The  vegetation  is  that  of  the  countries  of  the  south,  and  in  cer- 
tain places  it  is  very  fine.  Maize,  or  Indian  corn,  is  the  most 
common  cultivation  of  these  countries,  and  is  found  alike  in  the 
plains  and  valleys ;  wheat  prospers  every  where,  except  in  places 
of  too  great  elevation  ;  oranges,  pomegranates,  figs,  olives, 
and  melons,  abound  generally  towards  the  south.  Many  roses 
are  cultivated  for  the  manufacture  of  rose-water  and  oil  of 
roses ;  they  are  planted  in  rows,  and  present  a  charming  appear- 
ance in  the  flowering  season,  when  these  places  are  constantly 
perfumed  by  the  flowers  or  the  remains  of  the  rose  leaves.  To- 
bacco succeeds  perfectly,  and  is  of  superior  quahty.  Sesame  and 
cotton  likewise  flourish.  The  Turkey  cherry  tree  is  also  cultivated, 
whose  straight  trunk  and  extremely  smooth  bark  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  very  highly  esteemed  pipe  tubes.  Another  prod- 
uct, which  has  acquired  great  importance  since  wood-engrav- 
ings have  become  so  general,  is  the  hoxwood,  a  shrub  which 


THE,  CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE.  291 

in  Turkey  attains  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  in  height,  and  whose 
hard  and  heavy  wood  has  always  been  highly  esteemed  for 
articles  turned  in  a  lathe,  and  for  the  construction  of  toys.  The 
fine  and  compact  grain  of  this  wood  renders  it  invaluable  for  en- 
graving. On  a  well-polished  block  the  designer  traces  a  sub- 
ject with  a  pencil,  the  engraver  then  hollows  all  the  edges  of  the 
surface  which  are  left  blank,  so  that  the  pencil  characters  stand 
out  in  relief,  and  the  design  may  be  put  under  press  like  a  print- 
ing type.  The  leaves  of  the  box  tree  are  used  instead  of  hops, 
for  giving  bitterness  to  beer ;  but  this  adulteration  is  dangerous. 

The  oaks,  that  abound  in  Turkey  in  Europe,  furnish  various 
products,  which  are  highly  appreciated  in  commerce,  such  as 
gall  nuts,  excrescences  created  on  the  oak  leaves  by  the  puncture 
of  a  little  insect,  and  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  our 
inks  and  various  dyes,  and  the  valonia  which  is  nothing  more 
than  the  cup  or  envelope  of  the  acorn  of  a  certain  variety  of 
oak :  these  cups,  which  are  usually  of  large  growth,  are  esteemed 
for  the  tanning  of  leather  and  for  dyeing  black. 

The  animals  are  similar  to  those  of  the  rest  of  Europe.  The 
horses,  generally  of  medium  size,  are  well  trained  and  of  some 
repute.  The  asses  are  larger  and  stronger  than  those  of  Western 
Europe.  Sheep  are  the  companions  of  man  throughout  Turkey, 
and  constitute  the  principal  nourishment  of  its  inhabitants.  They 
have  no  stables ;  but  in  order  to  preserve  them  from  the  attacks 
of  wolves,  they  are  confined  in  palisaded  enclosures.  Goats  are 
more  numerous  in  this  country  than  in  all  the  rest  of  Europe, 
and  contribute  not  a  little  to  the  devastation  of  the  forests ;  they 
never  enter  a  stable ;  some  of  them  yield  silky  wool ;  thus  they 
are  reared  for  the  sake  of  their  hair  and  skin,  as  well  as  for  their 
milk.  Swine  abound  in  the  north-west,  and  especially  in  the  im- 
mense oak  forests  of  Servia.  The  Turkish  hog,  usually  white, 
has  large,  crooked  tusks,  and  often  renders  itself  formidable  to 
little  children,  and  dogs ;  it  partakes  somewhat  of  the  savage 
nature  of  the  wild  boar.  They  wander  by  thousands,  during  the 
summer,  in  the  oak  forests,  so  that  the  proprietors  themselves  are 
not  aware  how  many  they  possess.  They  are  recognized  by  a 
notch  commonly  made  in  the  ear.  By  scattering  among  them 
maize  or  barley,  their  owners  entice  them  within  enclosures,  where 


292  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

the  whole  band  may  be  secured.  They  are  fattened  on  acorns, 
chestnuts,  apples,  and  wild  pears,  and  give  rise  to  a  very  exten- 
sive trade  with  Germany.  It  is  this  commerce  especially  which 
has  furnished  the  Serbs  with  money  and  resources  for  maintain- 
ing against  the  Turks  the  almost  complete  independence  which 
they  enjoy.  The  destruction  of  the  oaks  is  among  them  the  ruin 
of  men ;  thus  they  often  sing,  "  May  God  give  us  an  abundance 
of  acorns,  for  every  oak  is  a  Serb." 

Wandering  dogs  are  one  of  the  greatest  peculiarities  of  Turkey 
and  of  the  East.  In  the  large  cities  especially  exist  considerable 
numbers  formed  into  companies,  which  will  not  intermix  with 
those  of  other  bands.  These  troops  of  dogs,  together  with 
vultures  and  other  birds  of  prey,  perform  the  office  of  scavengers ; 
they  devour  at  least  every  thing  that  is  eatable,  and  thus  thor- 
oughly purge  the  markets  and  streets.  The  baying  of  these 
animals  during  the  night  is  very  disagreeable  to  travellers,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  whom  they  invariably  congregate  and  bark. 
They  are  not,  however,  to  be  feared  when  encountered,  if  one  is 
only  provided  with  a  whip,  or  weapon  of  any  other  description. 

A  little  animal,  which  gives  rise  in  Turkey  to  a  commerce  still 
considerable,  although  gradually  diminishing,  is  the  leech,  so  valu- 
able for  extracting  from  certain  diseased  portions  of  the  body 


Leech. 

the  superfluous  and  injurious  accumulation  of  blood.  The 
leech  is  a  species  of  worm,  of  a  dark  brown  color,  having  at  its 
two  extremities  lips,  with  which  it  clings  to  objects,  and  which  aid 
it  in  its  progress :  in  the  interior  of  the  upper  lip  are  found  three 
jaws,  furnished  with  three  small  teeth,  which  serve  to  pierce  the 
skin  and  start  the  blood,  which  the  animal  then  sucks  until  gorged. 
The  consumption  of  leeches  has  augmented  extraordinarily 
within  30  years ;  thus  they  will  soon  be  every  where  exhausted. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  293 

Paris  alone  employs  annually  more  than  three  millions.  They 
are  collected  in  the  marshes,  both  by  the  hand,  and  by  means  of 
small  hair  nets,  with  loose  meshes.  The  individuals  who  engage 
in  this  fishery  generally  place  their  bare  legs  in  the  water,  and 
seize  all  those  which  adhere  to  them.  They  carefully  sort  these 
animals,  putting  the  sound  ones  into  damp  bags ;  but  storms  cause 
great  numbers  to  perish  during  transportation. 

The  population  is  all  of  the  white  race.  It  is  composed,  1.  Of 
TurkSf  who  are  the  masters  of  the  country,  although  they  are 
not  the  most  numerous  inhabitants.  These  disciples  of  the  false 
prophet  Mahomet  are  generally  handsome  and  robust,  of  a  grave 
aspect,  very  upright,  hospitable,  polite  to  strangers,  good  parents, 
and  excellent  friends,  but  oppressive  and  disdainful  towards  their 
Christian  subjects,  the  rai/as, — whom  they  habitually  stigmatize  by 
the  epithet  of  dogs,  —  unrelenting  in  their  vengeance,  and  always 
animated  by  strong  religious  fanaticism.  The  last  sultans  have 
accorded  considerable  privileges  to  the  rayas ;  among  others,  a 
full  religious  liberty,  absolutely  unknown  in  Spain  and  Portugal : 
they  have  also  made  the  greatest  efforts  to  introduce  into  their 
provinces  the  civilization  and  arts  of  the  west.  The  Turks,  how- 
ever, yield  but  slowly  to  these  new  influences,  and  have  main- 
tained up  to  the  present  time  polygamy  and  slavery,  two  mon- 
strous institutions,  but  authorized  by  the  Koran. 

2.  Of  Slavonians,  established  principally  in  the  provinces  of 
the  north,  nearly  all  of  whom  adhere  to  the  Greek  religion,  ex- 
cept a  few  who  are  Catholics.  They  have  suffered  cruelly  from 
Turkish  tyranny,  which  has  crushed  and  reduced  them,  with- 
out power  to  diminish  their  numbers,  or  quench  entirely  their 
thirst  for  independence.  The  country  seems  covered  with  ruins  ; 
for  no  one  rebuilds  his  fallen  house,  for  fear  of  exciting  the 
cupidity  of  the  Turks  by  an  exterior  of  comfort.  Their  huts  are 
often  simply  dug  in  the  earth,  on  Ihe  sides  of  hills,  with  a  hole  in 
the  ceiling  instead  of  a  chimney,  which  sometimes  enables  one 
from  without  to  observe  the  private  life  of  families.  But  it  is 
impossible  to  judge  of  the  prosperity  of  the  peasants  from  the 
rude  appearance  of  their  dwellings.  From  these  species  of  cav- 
erns, Serbs  may  often  be  seen  to  emerge,  richly  clad,  armed  to 
the  teeth,  with  a  proud  air  and  uplifted  head,  each  accompanied 
25*  . 


294  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

by  his  wife,  arrayed  in  as  many  jewels  and  ornaments  of  gold  as 
would  be  required  to  constitute  the  dowry  of  her  daughter.  The 
stranger  may  every  where  fearlessly  claim  hospitality,  as  he  can 
every  where  travel  without  apprehension  of  the  least  injury. 

3.  Of  Greeks,  who  form  the  most  numerous  portion  of  the 
population,  and  chiefly  inhabit  the  southern  provinces.  They 
are  the  most  despised  and  ill  treated  of  all  the  rayas,  and  are 
generally  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  the  land.  Their  rehgious 
chief  is  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 

There  exist  also  in  Turkey  communities  of  Armenians,  who 
are  principally  occupied  with  banking  business  and  commerce, 
a  few  Protestant  churches,  and  a  considerable  number  of  Jews. 

To  the  Hellenic  peninsula,  properly  so  called,  belong  several 
other  peninsulas  of  minor  importance,  among  which  is  one  that 
has  always  been  an  extremely  celebrated  country,  and  of  which 
it  is  necessary  that  we  should  say  a  few  words  :  this  is  the  Morea, 
(or  ancient  Peloponnesus,)  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Gulf 
of  Lepanto,  on  the  west  by  the  Ionian  Sea,  on  the  south  by  the 
Mediterranean,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Archipelago. 

The  Morea  owes  its  name  to  the  resemblance  which  it  bears  to 
a  mulberry  leaf.  It  forms  a  great  number  of  small  peninsulas, 
the  most  southern  of  which  terminates  in  Cape  Matapan,  the 
extreme  point  of  Europe  in  that  direction.  It  is  connected  with 
the  continent  by  the  famous  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  which  is  very 
mountainous  and  easy  of  defence. 

Aspect.  —  Greece  is  a  perpetual  succession  of  mountains  and 
valleys,  which  have  contributed  in  no  slight  degree  in  imparting 
to  its  people  a  character  at  once  diverse  and  uniform.  None 
of  its  mountains,  however,  attain  the  region  of  eternal  snows. 

The  climate  is  generally  very  mild ;  the  winters  are  often 
exempt  from  frost,  and  snow  lingers  but  a  few  days  in  the  plain ; 
it  rarely  rains  during  the  summer,  so  that  a  house  is  almost  super- 
fluous in  this  country  during  three  quarters  of  the  year.  But 
nevertheless  Greece  is  not  a  very  healthy  country ;  the  marshy 
lands  are  insalubrious.  Moreover,  the  imprudent  clearing  of  the 
soil  seems  to  have  changed  the  climate.  The  same  mountain  in 
the  forests  of  which  the  ancient  Athenians  formerly  hunted  the 
bear,  now  scarcely  produces  a  few  stunted  trees.     Many  springs 


THE    CONTINENT    OF    EUROPE.  295 

and  celebrated  rivers  have  likewise  disappeared,  and  with  the 
drought,  sterility  has  invaded  lands  which  were  formerly  ex- 
tremely fertile. 

Vegetables.  —  The  olive  tree  is  nature's  most  precious  gift  to 
Greece.  As  many  as  nine  varieties  are  found  in  this  country, 
and  it  is  estimated  that  an  acre  of  olive  trees  yields  a  product  a 
third  more  valuable  than  an  equal  quantity  of  land  employed  in 
any  other  culture.  The  aromatic  plants  with  which  the  soil  is 
covered  impart  to  the  honey  of  this  region  qualities  which  have 
rendered  it  famous,  particularly  that  of  Mount  Hymettus,  in 
Attica ;  sweeter  and  of  more  exquisite  perfume  than  any  other 
known  honey,  it  is  at  the  same  time  of  a  most  beautiful  trans- 
parency, although  of  a  reddish  color.  The  Morea  exports,  in 
great  quantities,  to  the  west,  its  celebrated  raisins  without  stones, 
improperly  called  Corinth  raisins,  since  they  are  not  cultivated 
in  the  environs  of  this  city  and  isthmus.  These  raisins  are  very 
small ;  they  change  to  a  reddish  black  on  becoming  old,  and  are 
then  sweet  to  the  taste,  although  slightly  acidulated.  They  are 
plucked  from  the  stems,  and  when  quite  dry  are  exported  in 
casks  ;  great  use  is  made  of  them  in  pastry. 

The  animals  are  of  little  note.  Cattle  are  not  abundant.  The 
principal  flocks  are  those  of  sheep,  which  are  guarded  by  ex- 
tremely savage  dogs,  dangerous  to  travellers.  Land  tortoises,  of 
the  species  called  Greek  tortoiss,  exist  in  abundance  in  the  Morea 
and  in  Turkey.  They  lay  a  great  quantity  of  eggs,  which  are 
found  on  the  ground  in  the  places  which  they  inhabit,  and 
where  the  sun  hatches  them.  They  are  eaten,  as  likewise  the 
flesh  of  these  animals,  which  bears  some  resemblance  to  that  of 
chicken. 

Population.  —  The  Greeks  are  intelligent,  lively,  and  coura- 
geous ;  but  they  are  characterized  by  a  great  propensity  for  rob- 
bery and  piracy,  which  are  by  no  means  regarded  in  this  country 
as  disgraceful  deeds ;  the  exploits  of  the  most  valiant  of  these 
brigands  form,  indeed,  the  principal  theme  of  the  popular  ballads 
of  modern  Greece.  Until  the  present  era,  however,  it  was  against 
their  oppressors,  the  Turks,  that  the  enterprises  of  the  brigands 
were  directed.  The  Greeks  are  reputed  a  frivolous,  unsteady, 
and   superstitious  nation.     Nowhere,  perhaps,  are   such  a  vast 


296  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATUEE. 

number  of  lents  and  fast  days  observed.  It  is  affirmed  that  of 
the  365  days  of  the  year,  as  many  as  182  are  days  of  privation, 
during  which  eggs  even  are  only  allowed  on  Sunday.  In  this 
ancient  country  of  letters,  sciences,  and  arts,  education  is  now 
but  little  diffused,  agriculture  neglected,  and  the  arts  extinct. 
Nearly  all  the  inhabitants  belong  to  the  Greek  church. 


Greek. 

Peninsula  op  Crimea.  —  The  Crimea,  situated  between 
the  Black  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Azof,  is  united  with  the  continent 
by  a  very  narrow  isthmus,  that  of  Perehop.  Its  aspect  is  ex- 
tremely diversified,  for  at  the  north  it  presents  plains,  forming  an 
uninhabited  steppe,  destitute  of  trees  and  water,  whilst  the  south- 
ern part  is  occupied  by  the  high  mountains  of  Jaila,  which  seem 
to  be  a  fragment  separated  from  the  Caucasus  by  the  Strait  of 
Yenikale.  The  climate  also  naturally  varies  much ;  the  plains 
of  the  north,  exposed  to  the  powerful  blast  of  the  icy  north  winds 
of  the  poles,  are  cold  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  intensely 
hot  in  summer ;  the  southern  coast,  on  the  contrary,  well  shel- 
tered by  the  mountains  of  the  centre,  possesses  a  temperature 
similar  to  that  of  Italy.  The  valleys  of  the  Jaila  enjoy  a  healthy 
atmosphere,  a  clear  sky,  and  fruitful  nature ;  in  comparison  with 
the  rest  of  Russia,  they  are  delightful  regions,  where  the  great 
Russian  noblemen  maintain  charming  country  seats  and  smiling 
gardens.     The  vegetables   are  those  of  the  warm   chmes ;  the 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE. 


297 


orchards  abound  in  melons,  pomegranates,  and  other  fruits ;  the 
vine,  the  cuUivation  of  which  is  greatly  increasing  every  year, 
yields  wines  of  some  estimation.  It  is  said  that  rye  also  grows 
spontaneously  in  this  country,  and  in  the  neighboring  countries 
of  the  Caucasus.  The  animals  are  numerous  ;  the  cattle  are  of 
good  breed ;  camels  are  found  there,  and  likewise  long-haired 
goats,  called  angora.  Among  the  birds,  the  most  lucrative  object 
of  pursuit  is  the  bustard,  a  large  bird  which  commonly  moves  in 


Bustard. 


flocks  of  twelve  or  fifteen,  and  in  winter  of  from  eighty  to  a 
hundred.     If  frightened,  each  flies  in  a  different  direction.     In 


298  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

summer  they  are  often  seen  feeding  with  their  young,  the  male 
guarding  the  safety  of  his  family,  and  giving  the  alarm  at  the 
least  sign  of  danger :  its  vigilance  is  such,  that  much  skill  is 
required  to  enable  one  to  approach  it,  by  creeping,  in  order  to 
kill  it.  They  are  better  qualified  to  run  than  fly,  and  it  is  only 
with  difficulty  that  they  can  be  overtaken  by  dogs.  But  in  win- 
ter, when  the  ice  adheres  to  their  wings,  they  cannot  escape,  and 
men  mounted  on  horseback  kill  them  with  blows  of  their  whips. 
Individuals  are  cited  who  have  slain  as  many  as  a  hundred  and 
fifty  in  a  single  morning,  and  have  thus  earned  more  than  $90. 

The  population  is  composed  chiefly  of  Tartars,  a  peaceable, 
industrious,  and  quite  civilized  people,  although  Mahometans. 
The  other  inhabitants  are  Russians,  Greeks,  and  a  few  foreign 
colonists. 

Sect.  3.  Principal  Chains  of  Mountains  in  Europe. 
The  Alps.  —  The  Alps  are  the  most  important  and  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  mountains  in  Europe,  as  they  are  likewise  the 
centre  of  all  the  European  high  country.  They  extend  like 
an  immense  crescent  from  the  borders  of  the  Gulf  of  Lyons 
even  to  the  mouth  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  every  where  elevating 
towards  the  skies  their  lofty  spires  or  snowy  peaks,  here  towering 
like  an  insurmountable  wall,  and  there  unbosoming  broad  and 
deep  valleys,  perfectly  accessible  and  inhabitable,  even  to  very 
great  heights. 

Nothing  can  be  more  varied  than  the  aspect  of  the  Alps.  On 
tha  slopes  and  less  elevated  summits,  the  admiration  is  awakened 
by  magnificent  forests  of  beeches,  firs,  or  larches,  an  important 
resource  to  the  inhabitants.  Higher  up  may  be  encountered  the 
richest  and  most  beautiful  pastures,  where  graze  superb  cattle, 
whose  milk  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  celebrated  cheeses. 
Beyond  the  region  of  the  charming  rhododendron,  or  oleander  of 
the  Alps,  and  the  pastures,  one  arrives  at  that  of  the  eternal 
snows,  which,  gradually  swollen  by  the  water  they  absorb,  and 
rendered  heavy  by  congealing,  glide  downwards,  descending  into 
the  high  valleys,  where  they  are  transformed  into  those  enormous 
masses  of  ice  known  under  the  name  of  glaciers.  These,  par- 
tially dissolving  beneath  the  action  of  the  summer  heat,  nourish 
the  rivers  and  preserve  the  neighboring  countries  from  drought. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  299 

A  thousand  singular  caprices  of  nature  also  add  to  the  aston- 
ishment of  the  traveller :  here  immense  precipices,  down  which 
the  eye  glances  bewildered,  there  smiling  valleys,  always  en- 
livened by  the  murmuring  of  limpid  streams,  or  by  the  curious 
spectacle  of  roaring  cascades,  falling  like  a  network  of  white 
spray  from  the  tops  of  the  rocks.  Elsewhere  one  finds  himself 
face  to  face  with  some  detached  mountain  mass,  which  has  sud- 
denly metamorphosed  a  smiling  country  into  terrible  chaos,  where 
men,  cattle,  and  houses  are  promiscuously  buried.  Again  may 
be  seen,  gliding  and  plunging,  the  fearful  avalanche,  which,  at 
first  a  small  snow  ball  severed  from  the  heights  by  some  for- 
tuitous event,  sometimes  by  the  simple  concussion  produced  in 
the  air  by  the  human  voice,  increases  so  rapidly  in  its  progress, 
that  before  arriving  at  the  foot  of  the  valley  it  often  acquires 
colossal  dimensions  —  overwhelming  villages,  uprooting  entire 
forests,  and  even  killing  men  and  animals,  merely  by  the  whirl- 
wind which  it  creates  at  some  distance  by  its  motion.  Thus, 
every  where  in  the  Alps,  creation  is  invested  with  a  character  of 
grandeur,  of  mysterious  and  terrible  power,  or  of  calm  and  silent 
majesty,  which  fills  man  with  a  sense  of  his  own  insignificance, 
and  yet  irresistibly  lifts  his  soul  on  high,  in  the  contemplation  of 
the  infinite  glory  of  nature  and  of  God. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Alps  are  swayed  by  the  severe  scenery 
which  surrounds  them  on  every  side ;  but  there  is  nothing  pain- 
ful or  oppressive  in  the  power  which  it  exercises  over  them: 
on  the  contrary  it  develops  their  courage,  their  ingenuity,  and 
their  activity ;  it  inspires  them  with  such  a  love  of  their  country 
that  they  quit  it  for  a  season  only  with  regret ;  and  if  in  a  foreign 
land  their  ears  chance  to  be  greeted  by  the  airs,  whose  strains 
have  been  repeated  by  the  echoes  of  their  own  mountains,  they 
pine  with  homesickness.  They  are  generally  robust  and  coura- 
geous, simple,  generous,  frank,  and  hospitable ;  they  are  very 
fond  of  the  song,  the  dance,  and  the  wrestling  match.  They  are 
principally  shepherds,  and  their  life  is  half  nomadic.  At  the 
close  of  the  winter  they  abandon  the  valleys  or  the  plains,  and 
successively  conduct  their  flocks  in  the  spring,  summer,  and  au- 
tumn to  the  pastures,  situated  at  different  heights,  each  of  which 
has  its  appropriate  cottage.     The  manufacture  of  cheese  is  almost 


300  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

their  only  occupation  ;  wood,  medicinal  plants,  cattle,  and  cheese 
are  the  articles  which  they  export  to  foreign  countries. 

This  picture  represents,  however,  only  the  finest  and  most 
important  portion  of  the  chain,  the  Central  Alps,  or  Alps  of 
Switzerland  and  Tyrol,  which  naturally  lead  us  to  speak  of  the 
subdivisions  and  principal  summits  of  these  celebrated  mountains. 

The  Western  Alps  are  the  least  beautiful  portion  of  the 
whole  chain.  They  are,  unfortunately,  for  the  most  part,  destitute 
of  wood,  and  consequently  very  poor.  The  forests  having  been 
once  felled,  the  mosses  and  other  small  plants,  which  retained  the 
vegetable  earth,  have  dried  up,  and  the  rains  and  torrents  have 
washed  away  what  little  earth  covered  the  rocks,  thenceforth  left 
bare  ;  thus  sterility  has  increased  from  year  to  year  in  a  deplora- 
ble manner,  and  energetic  measures  would  be  required  for  the 
restoration  of  the  forests.  Such  as  they  are,  however,  these 
mountains  present,  in  their  high  valleys,  rich  and  valuable  pas- 
tures for  the  strolling  sheep  of  the  neighboring  plains,  (Provence,) 
which  ascend  them  in  considerable  numbers  during  the  heat  of 
summer. 

Certain  remarkable  animals  are  found  there,  such  as  the  great 
eagle  of  the  Alps,  the  king  of  birds,  whose  courage  and  generosity 
have  generally  been  exaggerated  in  juvenile  books ;  the  brown 
hear  of  the  Alps,  the  most  formidable  of  the  wild  beasts  of  Eu- 
rope, which  can,  it  is  said,  fell  with  one  blow  of  its  paw  an  ox  or 
horse,  but  which  often  hugs  and  stifles  its  prey,  tears  it  in  pieces 
with  its  claws,  and  afterwards  buries  the  remnants  for  a  future 
meal.  An  animal,  much  more  deserving  of  interest,  and  which 
abounds  principally  at  the  north-west,  in  the  Alps  of  Savoy,  is 
the  marmot,  which  poor  children  carry  into  the  large  cities  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  a  few  pennies  from  the  compassionate  by- 
standers, by  making  the  timid  animal  dance  to  the  music  of  the 
hurdygurdy  or  some  such  simple  instrument.  The  marmot  is 
of  the  size  of  a  hare,  but  has  a  more  thick-set  body  ;  its  hair  is 
of  a  reddish  brown,  of  a  hue  more  or  less  deep.  Taken  young, 
it  is  easily  tamed,  and  may  be  taught  to  dance,  to  seize  a  stick,  to 
walk  on  its  hind  feet,  and  carry  to  its  mouth  the  food  which  it 
grasps  with  its  fore  feet.    Marmots  live  in  companies,  in  subter- 


THE   CONTINENT  OF   EUROPE.  301 

ranean  habitations,  in  the  form  of  a  prostrate  Y  (  i-<^ ),  the  lower 
branch  serving  only  as  an  outlet  for  rubbish,  for  this  animal  is  ex- 
cessively neat.     These  habitations  are  lined  with  a  great  quantity 


Great  Eagle  of  the  Alps. 

of  moss  and  hay ;  but  the  story  related  in  many  books,  to  the  effect 
that  this  hay  is  transported  by  one  of  them  stretched  on  its  back 
and  dragged  by  the  others,  is  utterly  preposterous.  In  the  month 
of  October  they  close  up  their  dwelling  with  moss  and  hay, 
crouch  close  together,  and  there  remain  torpid  and  motionless 
until  the  month  of  March.  They  inhabit  only  the  highest  por- 
tions of  the  Alps,  and  as  they  never  feed  without  stationing  on 
some  lofty  rock  a  sentinel,  whose  shrill  whistle  warns  them  of 
the  approach  of  an  enemy,  it  is  very  difficult  to  catch  and  kill  them. 
The  flesh  of  the  marmot  is  eaten,  although  it  has  a  very  strong 
flavor  of  wild  game.     Use  is  also  made  of  its  fur  and  fat. 

The  Central  Alps,  which,  from  the  extremity  of  the  preceding, 
stretch  towards  the  east,  include   the  highest  summits  of  Eu- 
26 


302  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

rope  —  those  which  are  visited  almost  every  year  by  throngs  of 
travellers ;  among  others,  Mont  Blanc,  15,739  feet  high,  whose 
difficult  ascent  has  been  attempted  every  summer  since  the  cele- 
brated Genevese  naturalist  De  Saussure  was  enabled  to  measure 
and  describe  its  perils-,  by  having  himself  attained  this  icy  peak, 
whence  one  enjoys  a  most  extensive  view,  but  where  the  azure 
of  heaven  seems  almost  black,  whilst  the  atmosphere  is  such  as 
to  render  respiration  difficult,  and  blood  often  gushes  from  the 
eyes  or  nostrils.  Mounts  Cervin^  Rosa,  Cornhhiy  and  Bernina, 
are  also  very  lofty  peaks. 

These  mountains  also  present  secondary  chains,  forming  a  cer- 
tain number  of  very  large  valleys,  remarkable  for  their  pictur- 
esque characters,  their  beautiful  rivers,  forests,  and  superb  pas- 
tures, most  of  which  terminate  at  their  lower  extremity  in  great 
lakes,  where  the  rivers  deposit  their  slime,  and  from  which  they 
issue  clear  and  transparent.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  val- 
leys are  those  of  Chamouni,  at  the  foot  of  the  glaciers  of  Mont 
Blanc  ;  the  Valais,  at  the  foot  of  Cervin  and  Mont  Kosa,  between 
the  principal  chain  of  the  Alps  and  the  Bernese  Alps ;  the  Ber- 
nese Oberland,  or  valley  of  Aar,  a  charming  group  of  mountains 
and  valleys,  at  the  foot  of  the  Jungfrau,  (or  Virgin  peak,)  in  the 
Bernese  Alps ;  the  valley  of  Tessin,  at  the  south,  and  that  of 
Keuss,  north  of  Mount  St.  Gothard ;  besides  many  others. 

This  portion  of  the  Alps  is  generally  well  wooded :  the  forests 
are  stocked  with  beeches,  firs,  often  of  gigantic  size,  and  larches, 
whose  wood  is  particularly  adapted  for  vessels,  or  constructions 
exposed  to  the  action  of  water.  Much  of  these  woods  is  exported 
to  foreign  countries.  Of  the  maple  wood,  the  peasants  of  the 
Alps,  especially  those  of  Oberland,  carve  thousands  of  little  arti- 
cles—  spoons,  forks,  drinking  cups,  paper  kniv.es,  small  Swiss 
cottages,  &c. ;  and  these  works  of  sculpture,  executed  with  admi- 
rable art,  merely  by  the  aid  of  a  knife,  are  now  disseminated  every 
where  among  people  of  taste,  and  are  the  source  of  considerable 
profit. 

The  Central  Alps  contain  few  metals,  but  they  abound  in 
springs  of  mineral  water,  very  beneficial  to  the  health,  and  which 
attract  many  travellers.  They  are  also  rich  in  cattle,  particularly 
in  horned  cattle  of  great  size,  producing  famous  cheeses,  especially 


THE  CONTINENT   OF  EUROPE. 


303 


those  of  Gruyeres,  which  are  despatched  throughout  the  west. 
These  mountains  nourish  various  wild  animals  worthy  of  mention. 
Besides  those  which  we  have  already  designated  in  the  Western 
Alps,  —  bears,  eagles,  and  marmots, — we  should  particularize  the 


chamois — a  charming  animal  now  become  rare,  and  the  only  one 
which  Western  Europe  presents  us  of  the  antelope  race.  Its 
graceful  head  is  adorned  with  small  horns  bent  backwards  in  the 
form  of  hooks.  This  quadruped  lives  in  troops  on  the  high 
mountains,  and  displays  the  most  wonderful  agility.  It  is  seen 
to  leap  precipices,  skip  from  rock  to  rock,  and  pause  on  the  edge 
of  a  peak,  offering  scarcely  sufficient  space  for  its  feet.  Its  senses 
are  very  acute ;  it  both  hears  and  sees  at  a  great  distance :  in 
case  of  alarm  it  makes  the  mountains  ring  with  a  piercing  whis- 
tle, produced  through  its  nostrils.  It  subsists  on  flowers,  tender 
buds,  and  the  most  aromatic  herbs.  The  chamois  hunt  is  veiy 
toilsome  and  dangerous ;  sometimes,  indeed,  the  animal,  finding  no 
other  mode  of  escape,  throws  itself  violently  upon  the  hunter  in 
order  to  precipitate  him  into  the  abyss.  And  yet  an  almost  irre- 
sistible attraction  always  lures  the  sportsman  to  the  highest  peaks, 
where  he  can  devote  himself  to  this  perilous  pursuit.     The  flesh 


304  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

of  the  chamois  is  excellent,  and  its  very  supple  skin  was  formerly 
much  esteemed  for  gloves,  and  even  for  garments. 

The  condor,  griffon^  or  Alpine  vuUure,  is  the  inveterate  enemy 
of  the  chamois,  which  it  pursues,  attacks,  and  endeavors,  by  vio- 
lent blows  of  its  wings,  to  cast  to  the  bottom  of  the  abysses,  where 
it  becomes  its  prey.  This  terrible  bird,  which  holds  the  interme- 
diate position  between  the  vulture  and  the  eagle,  measures  as 
many  as  12  and  even  16  feet  from  one  extremity  to  the  other  of 
its  outstretched  wings.  It  not  only  attacks  sheep,  chamois,  goats, 
and  marmots,  but  also  man  himself,  and  especially  little  children. 
Many  of  the  latter,  left  alone  in  the  lofty  pastures,  have  been 
transported  by  these  vultures  to  their  almost  inaccessible  eyries ; 
some  of  them  have,  however,  been  recovered  before  the  bird  of 
prey  had  devoured  them.  Fortunately,  these  birds,  which  lay 
only  two  eggs,  and  live  isolated,  or  rather  in  pairs,  are  not  very 
numerous;  otherwise  they  would  have  soon  depopulated  the 
mountains  of  all  other  animals. 

The  Eastern  Alps  are  generally  less  elevated,  less  pictur- 
esque, and  less  known  than  the  preceding.  They  slope  towards 
the  east,  and  divide  into  many  chains,  forming  great  valleys  va- 
riously celebrated ;  at  the  north  the  Tyrol,  a  country  eminently 
picturesque  and  interesting,  but  which  belongs  rather  to  the  Cen- 
tral Alps  ;  at  the  south  the  Valtellina  and  the  Valley  of  the  Adige, 
which,  in  climate  and  vegetation,  are  wholly  Italian ;  at  the  east 
the  valleys  of  the  Mur,  Save,  and  Drave,  particularly  rich  in  cattle 
and  metals. 

This  portion  of  the  Alps  contains  enormous  quantities  of  salt, 
which  sometimes  presents  itself  in  the  form  of  mineral  salt,  that 
is,  crystallized,  and  more  or  less  mixed  with  stone,  and  sometimes 
in  the  form  of  salt  springs,  whose  water,  gradually  evaporated  in 
great  salt-boilers,  leaves  a  sediment  of  fine  white  salt.  When 
this  salt  is  mixed  with  stone,  fragments  of  rock  salt  are  removed 
from  the  mine  and  placed  in  vast  reservoirs  excavated  in  the 
mountain,  which  are  filled  with  water  in  order  to  dissolve  the 
salt,  and  thus  detach  it  from  the  stone  with  which  it  is  incrusted. 
This  water  thence  descends  to  the  salt  works,  where  the  salt  is 
extracted  by  evaporation. 

The  Styrian  Alps  furnish  great  quantities  of  extremely  cele- 


THE   CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE.  305 

brated  iron,  which  competes  with  that  of  Sweden,  and  is  especial- 
ly valued  in  England  for  the  manufacture  of  steel.  But  the  most 
famous  mine  of  these  mountains  is  the  mercury  mine  in  Idria, 
which,  next  in  importance  to  those  of  Almaden,  in  Spain,  is  the 
richest  in  Europe.  This  substance  is  found  either  mixed  with 
sulphur,  forming  cinnabar,  of  a  red  color,  which  is  used  in  paint- 
ing, or,  it  is  dispersed  in  small  globules  among  the  clay,  whence 
it  often  escapes  and  flows  on  the  ground.  The  ore,  after  being 
pulverized  and  purified,  is  placed  in  furnaces  ;  the  fire  causes  the 
mercury  to  evaporate,  which  settles  in  a  liquid  form  on  the  sides 
of  the  neighboring  compartments,  whence  it  flows  upon  the  floor. 
Mercury,  which  is  also  called  quicksilver,  on  account  of  its  extreme 
mobiUty,  is  of  a  dazzling  whiteness,  and  has  the  appearance  of 
molten  lead.  It  supplies  medicine  with  very  energetic  remedies ; 
it  is  used  for  plating  glass  in  the  manufacture  of  barometers 
and  thermometers,  and  for  numerous  other  purposes.  Unfortu- 
nately the  workmen  who  explore  or  prepare  it  are  exposed  to  the 
sad  effects  of  mercurial  emanations.  After  a  time  they  become 
seized  with  nervous  tremors ;  one  by  one  they  lose  all  their 
teeth,  and  after  suffering  excruciating  pain  in  the  bones  and  joints, 
end  their  sufferings  by  death.  In  the  most  unhealthy  portions  of 
the  mines  of  Idria,  the  workmen  labor  only  four  hours  a  day,  and 
in  other  portions  eight. 

A  peculiarity  of  the  Eastern  Alps  is  the  enormous  number  of 
caverns,  tunnels,  and  subterranean  passages  which  are  there  en- 
countered. In  a  single  chain  of  these  mountains  there  are  esti- 
mated to  be  no  less  than  1000  caverns,  some  of  which,  such  as 
those  of  Adelsherg  and  Madeleine,  form,  over  an  extent  of  nearly 
two  leagues  in  length,  a  labyrinth  of  immense  halls,  lobbies,  and 
passages,  all  resplendent  by  torch  light,  with  a  thousand  incrusta- 
tions. In  the  subterranean  ponds  of  these  caverns  has  been  dis- 
covered a  singular  animal,  the  proteus,  which  somewhat  resembles 
a  lizard,  and  can  exist  both  above  and  below  the  surface  of  the 
water.  Light  is  not  essential  to  it,  as,  in  the  place  of  eyes,  only 
two  small  specks  are  to  be  seen ;  but  it  appears  to  suffer  when 
exposed  to  the  sun's  rays.  It  has  four  feet,  with  three  claws  to 
the  fore  and  two  to  the  hind  ones ;  but  they  are  too  feeble  to 
26* 


306  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

seize  any  thing,  or  to  support  the  animal's  body  ;  its  head  is  orna- 
mented with  a  kind  of  cock's  comb.  It  seems  to  subsist  entirely 
on  water. 


Proteus. 

In  the  midst  of  this  strange  nature  is  found  the  singular  Lake 
of  Zirknitz,  on  which,  sometimes  in  the  same  year,  the  labors 
of  the  fisherman,  the  hunter,  the  husbandman,  and  the  reaper  are 
alternately  pursued.  At  certain  irregular  periods,  the  waters 
suddenly  disappear  through  forty  different  fissures,  which  are 
found  in  the  bottom  of  its  bed.  The  inhabitant  of  the  borders 
then  hastens  to  secure  the  fish  that  the  waters  have  left  behind, 
and  to  hunt  the  aquatic  birds  which  there  take  up  their  abode. 
He  afterwards  sows  the  fertile  slime  abandoned  by  the  waters, 
and  often  raises  a  crop  in  the  very  places  where  he  had  previous- 
ly fished  with  the  line.  But  sometimes  the  waters  reappear  un- 
expectedly, and  annihilate  the  hopes  of  the  husbandmen,  who  con- 
sole themselves  for  their  disappointment  by  the  great  quantity 
of  fish  which  the  waves  have  washed  up  from  their  subterranean 
caverns. 

The  Alps  alone  do  not  constitute  Upper  Europe  ;  they  are  en- 
circled by  a  girdle  of  chains,  variously  celebrated,  and  of  which 
we  now  propose  to  say  a  few  words. 

The  Juka.  —  These  mountains,  which  are  of  too  little  eleva- 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUEOPE.  307 

tion  to  be  crowned  with  snow  during  the  whole  year,  originate  at 
the  point  where  the  Alps  begin  to  incline  towards  the  east.  They 
extend  from  south-west  to  north-east,  forming  many  parallel 
chains,  between  which  intervene  high,  cold,  and  marshy  valleys, 
abounding  in  turf;  they  often  contain  lakes  or  ponds,  whose 
waters  lose  themselves  in  subterranean  passages,  and  after  being 
made  available  as  mill  streams,  before  becoming  ingulfed  in  these 
tunnels,  reappear  in  some  lower  valley  in  beautiful  and  limpid 
springs.  Barley  and  oats  are  the  only  cereals  which  can  ripen  in 
these  high  valleys,  whose  resources  consist  only  in  active  industry. 
In  the  western  chains  of  the  Jura,  which  are  the  least  elevated, 
are  found  iron  mines  and  very  prolific  salt  springs.  Much  as- 
phaltum  is  also  explored  there — a  bitumen  of  which  we  have  made 
previous  mention  in  connection  with  the  Dead  Sea,  and  which  is 
now  extensively  used  for  the  flagging  of  streets  and  for  covering 
terraces. 

The  Vosges.  —  These  mountains,  a  little  less  elevated  than 
the  preceding,  form  a  beautiful  and  verdant  chain,  remarkable 
for  their  rounded  summits,  called  hallons,  and  which  stretch  from 
south  to  north,  commencing  near  the  extremity  of  the  Jura.  The 
Vosges,  with  their  fine  forests,  their  wooden  houses  imbosomed 
amid  this  rich  verdure,  and  the  transparent  waters  of  the  rivulets 
which  flow  on  every  side,  have  a  certain  air  of  resemblance  to 
Switzerland.  There  are  found  excellent  pastures,  considerable 
numbers  of  cattle,  many  celebrated  mineral  springs,  mines  of  rock 
salt,  and  likewise  salt  springs  of  some  importance.  The  Vosges 
produce  many  wild  cherry  trees,  from  which  cherry  brandy  is  ob- 
tained. The  cherries  are  crushed  together  with  the  greater  part 
of  the  kernels,  then  left  to  ferment,  and  afterwards  distilled.  The 
wood  of  the  cherry,  moreover,  is  possessed  of  a  compact  grain, 
susceptible  of  receiving  a  fine  polish,  and  of  a  reddish  color,  which, 
heightened  by  soaking  from  24  to  36  hours  in  lime  water,  consid- 
erably resembles  mahogany.  Thus  in  France,  where  the  latter 
wood  is  still  expensive,  that  of  the  wild  cherry  is  much  employed 
in  cabinet  work  for  the  manufacture  of  chairs  and  other  articles 
of  furniture. 

The  Cote  d 'Or.  —  Through  the  plateau  of  Langres,  w^hich 
contains  the  richest  iron  mines  of  France,  the  southern  portioji  of 


308  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

the  Vosges  communicates  with  the  much  less  elevated  chain  of 
the  mountains  of  the  Cote  d'  Or,  where  iron  is  also  found,  but 
which  received  its  name  from  its  rich  vineyards,  where  are 
manufactured  the  celebrated  Burgundy  wines,  famed  throughout 
Europe. 

The  Cevennes. — Bearing  different  names,  this  same  chain 
extends  towards  the  south  and  south-west,  under  the  general  desig- 
nation of  Cevennes.  These  mountains  are  naturally  poor  and  arid, 
but  the  labor  and  patience  of  man  have  imparted  to  them  an  artifi- 
cial fertility  ;  they  are  now  especially  rich  in  plantations  of  mul- 
berry trees,  whose  leaves  serve  to  nourish  an  immense  quantity  of 
silk  worms.  Nature  has,  however,  supplied  the  inhabitants  of  these 
mountains  with  a  ready-made  bread  in  the  chestnuts,  of  which 
the  largest  known,  under  the  name  of  Lyons  chestnuts,  are  the  ob- 
ject of  quite  an  extensive  commerce. 

The  Mountains  of  Auvergne. — A  branch  detached  from  the 
Cevennes,  on  the  western  side,  forms  the  Mountains  of  Auvergne, 
remarkable  for  their  ancient  but  now  extinct  volcanoes,  at  the  foot 
of  which  spread  immense  beds  of  lava  and  basalt,  proving  how 
terrible  in  these  places  must  have  been  the  power  of  the  subter- 
ranean fires  at  a  period  of  which  history  has  preserved  no  memo- 
rial. The  principal  peaks  of  conical  form,  and  known  by  the 
name  of  puys,  (Puy-de-Dome,  Cantal,  Mont  d'Or,  &c.,)  are  quite 
elevated,  and  covered  with  fine  pastures,  but  poorly  wooded. 
They  nourish  some  cattle,  among  others  goats,  whose  milk  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  enormous  quantities  of  cheeses.  Great 
numbers  of  the  population,  who  are  poor  and  ignorant,  emigrate 
to  Paris,  and  other  great  cities,  to  find  employment  as  chimney 
sweepers,  porters,  coal  carriers,  &c. 

The  Mountains  of  Limousin.  —  With  the  mountains  of 
Auvergne  are  connected  those  of  Limousin,  consisting  of  peaks 
of  little  elevation,  and  thinly  wooded,  but  damp,  cold,  and  of  an 
unhealthy,  rainy  climate.  Chestnuts  are  one  of  the  principal 
alimentary  resources  of  the  people,  who  dry  them  in  order  to 
preserve  them  throughout  the  year,  and  with  whom  they  almost 
take  the  place  of  bread.  This  country,  as  if  to  counterbalance  its 
deficiencies,  furnishes  abundance  of  kaolin,  that  hard,  but  fine 
species  of  clay,  of  which  the   beautiful  Limoges  'porcelain  is 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  300 

manufactured.  The  ignorant  and  credulous  Limousins  emigrate 
in  vast  numbers  to  great  cities,  where  they  are  employed  as  build- 
ers, and  especially  as  masons;  they  are  renowned  for  their 
sobriety. 

Having  sufficiently  acquainted  ourselves  with  the  mountainous 
region  which  compasses  the  Alps  at  the  north-west,  we  will  now 
pass  to  that  which  surrounds  Upper  Europe  at  the  north-east. 

The  Black  Forest.  —  North  of  the  Jura,  and  opposite  the 
Vosges,  appears  a  chain  parallel  to  the  latter,  which  owes  the  name 
of  Black  Forest  to  its  gloomy  forests  of  magnificent  fir  trees,  whose 
wood  is  floated  down  the  rivers,  and  thus  exported  to  a  distance. 
The  ingenious  sculptors  of  the  mountains  of  the  Black  Forest 
also  make  use  of  this  beautiful  white  fir  for  manufacturing  quan- 
tities of  toys  and  wooden  clocks,  of  which  hundreds  of  thousands 
are  constructed  every  year.  These  mountains  contain  mines  of 
considerable  importance,  and  produce  a  famous  cherry  brandy, 
superior  even  to  that  of  the  Vosges.  The  inhabitants,  well  edu- 
cated, full  of  intelligence,  and  very  industrious,  also  manufacture 
many  excellent  straw  hats. 

The  Rauke  Alp.  —  The  Rauke  Alp,  a  chain  of  little  ele- 
vation, but  very  steep,  and  of  a  wild  aspect,  follows  precisely  the 
same  course  as  the  Jura,  of  which  it  seems  to  be  the  continuation. 
This  is  a  poor  and  gloomy  country,  with  meagre  pasturage, 
slender  crops,  and  but  few  villages.  From  these  mountains  are 
procured  the  best  lithograph  stones.  These  are  sawed,  and  then 
polished,  first  with  fine  sand,  and  afterwards  with  a  species  of 
lava,  called  pumice  stone.  This  polish  must  be  such,  that  a  per- 
son, on  approaching  the  surface  of  the  stone,  may  clearly  distin- 
guish the  reflection  of  his  features.  This  stone  absorbs  both 
water  and  oily  substances,  but  especially  the  latter.  The  design 
is  traced  with  a  pencil  or  rich  ink,  and  afterwards  washed  with 
water.  The  latter  penetrates  every  part  of  the  surface  which  is 
not  protected  by  the  design,  but  it  does  not  affect  the  characters 
in  ink.  A  cylindrical  roller  is  then  passed  over  the  stone,  loaded 
with  printing  ink,  and  the  design  receives  this  ink,  which  is  of  an 
oily  nature,  while,  for  the  same  reason,  the  water  preserves  the 
other  parts  of  the  stone  intact.  A  sheet  of  paper  is  then  placed 
over  the  plate,  thus  prepared ;  this  is  pressed,  and  by  means  of 


310  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

the  ink  with  which  it  is  covered,  the  design  is  found  reproduced 
on  the  sheet.  This  operation  has  only  to  be  repeated  as  many- 
times  as  is  required,  until  the  original  design  has  lost  its  distinct- 
ness in  consequence  of  excessive  friction. 

The  Erz-Gebirge.  —  Still  pursuing  the  same  direction  to- 
wards the  north-east,  we  arrive  at  the  Erz-Gehirge,  which  signi- 
fies mountains  of  mines,  so  called  on  account  of  the  abundance 
of  their  mineral  products,  and  of  the  peculiar  skill  with  which 
they  are  explored.  Precious  stones  are  there  found  in  larger 
quantities  than  in  any  other  part  of  Europe,  although  inferior 
to  those  of  the  East;  quartz,  amethysts,  quartz-blanc,  agates; 
kaolin,  whose  excellent  quality  has  long  contributed  to  the  superi- 
ority of  the  Saxony  porcelain  over  all  others  in  Europe ;  silver 
mines,  the  most  productive  of  the  continent,  besides  many  other 
useful  metallic  substances  ;  the  cobalt,  for  example,  which  yields 
the  azure  blue  employed  in  the  coloring  of  artificial  stones,  and  in 
painting  on  porcelain.  It  is  also  used  for  imparting  a  blue  shade 
to  starch,  for  clearing  paper  of  its  yellow  tinge,  and  in  the  com- 
position of  the  beautiful  thenard  blue.  A  very  curious  sympathetic 
ink  is  made  of  cobalt  dissolved  in  aqua  regia;  the  characters 
traced  with  this  ink  disappear  on  becoming  cool,  and  are  again 
rendered  perceptible,  and  of  a  beautiful  greenish  blue  color,  when 
placed  near  the  fire. 

These  mountains,  with  broad  and  flat  crests,  and  vast  forests 
of  firs,  beeches,  and  oaks,  present  in  certain  places  extremely 
picturesque  landscapes,  especially  in  the  portion  which  has  been 
surnamed  Saxon  Switzerland,  The  inhabitants  lead  a  hard  and 
laborious  life,  but  they  are  nevertheless  gay  and  amiable,  well  in- 
formed, and  industrious.  They  have  succeeded  so  well  in  im- 
proving their  races  of  sheep  by  intermixtures  with  the  Spanish 
merinos,  that  the  Saxon  wool  now  ranks  first  in  the  world. 

The  Sudetic  Mountains.  —  The  Sudetes,  or  3fountains  of 
the  Giants,  commence  at  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  extend  in  a  south-easterly  direction.  They  have 
received  this  name  from  their  very  lofty  summits,  separated  by 
wild  gorges  and  numerous  torrents.  Iron  mines  of  excellent 
quality  are  worked  there,  and  more  especially  those  of  zinc,  with 
which  these  countries  supply  a  great  part  of  Europe.     The  zinc, 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE.  311 

whose  use  is  daily  increasing,  is  a  light  metal,  with  wliich  roofs 
are  covered,  and  of  which  bathing  tubs  and  a  variety  of  utensils 
are  made ;  also  a  gray-colored  zinc,  which  under  the  name  of 
white  zinc  begins  to  take  the  place  of  white  lead,  whose  poisonous 
properties  are  so  fatal  to  the  unfortunate  workmen  who  are 
obliged  to  prepare  or  make  use  of  it.  Zinc  combined  with  copper 
produces  brass,  which,  being  less  expensive  than  the  pure  copper, 
is  devoted  to  many  uses.  The  population  of  the  Sudetes  are  in- 
dustrious, peaceable,  and  rich ;  these  mountains  are  very  well 
peopled ;  among  them  are  found  numerous  large  villages,  consist- 
ing of  pretty  houses,  scattered  along  the  numerous  rivulets,  whose 
waters  are  particularly  favorable  to  the  bleaching  of  linen  cloth, 
which  is  manufactured  in  considerable  quantities  in  all  these 
countries,  and  in  the  neighboring  valley  of  Silesia. 

The  Moravian  Mountains.  —  The  Moravian  Mountains, 
which  form  the  extremity  of  the  Sudetes,  extend  from  north-east 
to  south-east,  parallel  to  the  Erz-Gebirge,  are  less  a  chain  with 
crests  and  summits,  than  a  broad  ridge  of  earth,  cultivated  or 
wooded,  and  covered  with  hills. 

The  Bohemian  Forest.  —  The  mountains  of  this  name, 
parallel  to  the  Sudetes,  and  which  complete  the  mountainous  en- 
closure of  the  country  called  Bohemia,  have  lofty,  wild,  and  arid 
summits,  bordered  with  wooded  offsets,  wliich  contain  considerable 
metallic  riches,  and  where  much  game  is  to  be  met  with ;  wild 
boars,  deer,  stags,  roebucks,  hares,  &c.  In  these  countries,  as 
tlu-oughout  Germany,  the  exclusive  right  of  the  chase  being 
always  assumed  by  the  nobles,  and  the  laws  against  poachers 
very  severe,  game  is  much  better  preserved  than  elsewhere. 
Thus,  in  a  royal  or  imperial  hunt,  it  is  not  uncommon  for  1000 
hares  to  be  slain,  if  such  is  the  game  in  quest,  40  or  50  stags, 
as  many  deer,  and  a  score  of  wild  boars,  if  the  sportsmen  are  in 
pursuit  of  large  game,  or  500  pheasants  and  1500  partridges,  if 
the  chase  is  that  of  the  feathered  tribe.  The  hare  hunt,  in  par- 
ticular, is  a  source  of  revenue  to  the  proprietors  or  tenants  of  the 
chase.  For  this  they  select  the  winter,  in  order  not  to  interfere 
with  the  reproduction  of  the  game,  and  because  at  this  season  the 
fur  is  better,  and  the  flesh  may  be  more  easily  preserved,  and 
transported  to  a  distance.     Thus  at  this  season  it  is  sold  at  lower 


312  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

prices  in  certain  cities   (Vienna  in  Austria  for  example)  than 
butcher's  meat. 

The  Harz.  —  North-west  of  the  Erz-Gebirge  is  found  a  cele- 
brated range  of  mountains  entirely  isolated  amidst  vast  plains ; 
this  is  the  Harz^  with  steep  valleys,  and  sterile,  cloudy,  and  cold 
summits,  which  the  Germans,  great  lovers  of  the  marvellous,  have 
pronounced  the  rendezvous  of  sorcerers  and  evil  spirits.  On  the 
highest  peak,  illustrated  by  legends  and  popular  tales,  the  Brocken, 
there  often  occurs,  at  morning  and  evening,  a  physical  phenom- 
enon which  has  long  inspired  the  inhabitant  of  the  Harz  with 
terror,  and  given  birth  to  many  absurd  superstitions.  If  the  spec- 
tator be  placed  between  the  sun  and  a  cloud,  he  sometimes  be- 
holds his  image  reflected  in  this  cloud  as  in  a  mirror,  but  magni- 
lied  and  distorted.  This  appearance  has  some  analogy  to  the 
phenomenon  of  the  mirage,  to  which  we  have  already  alluded. 
The  Harz,  moreover,  presents  many  remarkable  caverns,  con- 
taining the  fossil  bones  of  animals  undoubtedly  destroyed  by 
some  sudden  convulsion  of  our  globe,  and  very  different  from 
those  which  now  exist  in  these  same  regions  —  tigei*s,  lions,  &c. 
The  Harz  is  celebrated  for  its  mines,  the  principal  of  which  are 
those  of  silver,  iron,  lead,  and  copper.  The  inhabitants  are  al- 
most all  miners ;  thus  the  country  seems  deserted,  the  whole 
population  being  immured  in  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  or  dwel- 
ling in  the  cities.  These  miners  are  renowned  for  their  skill, 
their  almost  military  organization,  and  their  passion  for  music. 
They  are  poor,  but  contented,  joyous,  and  endowed  with  a  lively 
imagination. 

The  Carpathian  Mountains.  —  East  of  the  Mountains 
of  the  Giants  commences  a  chain  which  should  be  ranked  among 
the  most  considerable  of  Europe,  on  account  of  its  extent  and 
the  height  of  its  peaks :  these  are  the  Carpathian  Mountains, 
which  first  take  an  easterly,  then  a  southerly  direction,  and  after- 
wards retrace  their  course,  curving  to  the  west  and  north.  They 
contain  the  richest  gold  mines  of  Europe,  and  the  product  of  their 
silver  mines  is  almost  equivalent  to  that  of  the  mines  of  the  Erz- 
Gebirge  and  of  the  Harz.  This  is  the  only  country  in  Europe 
where  the  oyal  is  found,  a  beautiful  precious  stone  with  rainbow 
or  flame-colored  reflections,  which  long  enjoyed  an  immense  repu- 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  313 

tation,  because  it  was  believed  that  this  noble  stone  lost  all  its 
brilliancy  upon  the  least  contact  with  a  poisonous  substance,  and 
was  thus  useful  in  revealing  its  presence.  Immense  deposits  of 
mineral  salt  accompany  the  Carpathians  from  one  extremity  to 
the  other ;  they  have  been  worked  for  centuries,  and  many  of 
these  mines  are  extremely  curious,  among  others  those  of  Wie- 
liczka,  which  are  very  large,  and  in  the  heart  of  which  many 
workmen  are  born  and  die,  who  only  rarely  ascend  to  the  surface 
of  the  earth;  a  succession  of  halls  excite  the  admiration  of 
the  visitor,  and  especially  chapels,  excavated  in  the  rock  salt, 
all  the  ornaments  of  which,  —  high  altar,  crucifix,  and  statues,  — 
being  carved  in  salt,  produce  a  magic  spectacle  when  illuminated 
for  divine  service. 

Having  surveyed  the  principal  mountains,  which,  united,  con- 
stitute Central  Upper  Europe,  we  shall  now  consider  the  chains 
detached  from  this  centre,  and  which  thread  the  great  peninsulas 
of  the  continent. 

The  Scandinavian  Mountains.  —  This  chain,  which  com- 
mences at  Cape  North,  is  at  first  of  but  little  elevation;  its 
summits,  however,  increase  in  proportion  as  we  advance  towards 
the  south,  where  they  divide  into  two  branches  —  the  Kiolen  at  the 
south-east,  and  the  Dovrefield  at  the  south-west.  These  moun- 
tains, which  are  gloomy,  cloudy,  and  fissured,  are  chiefly  remark- 
able for  the  extreme  breadth  of  their  crest,  resembling  a  vast 
barren  and  desolate  plain,  marshy,  and  covered  with  lichens. 
Many  glaciers  are  found  there,  and  the  limit  of  perpetual  snows 
becomes  gradually  less  elevated  as  we  advance  towards  Cape 
North.  The  Scandinavian  Mountains  are  flanked  by  a  prodigious 
number  of  valleys,  which  towards  the  west  often  form  fiords, 
or  chasms,  occupied  by  the  sea  as  far  as  the  foot  of  the  chain, 
and  on  the  east  (in  this  respect  similar  to  the  Swiss  valleys)  are 
almost  all  terminated  by  lakes,  and  traversed  by  rivers,  forming 
superb  cataracts  of  many  hundred  feet  in  height.  These  moun- 
tains are  clothed  with  immense  forests  of  pines,  firs,  and  birches. 
Within  the  bowels  of  the  earth  there  are  silver  mines,  which 
are  not  very  productive  ;  the  best  iron  of  Europe,  almost  all  of 
which  is  monopolized  by  the  English,  who  make  use  of  it  in  the 
27 


314  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

manufacture  of  their  superior  steel ;  and  copper,  a  valuable  metal, 
which  combined  with  zinc  furnishes  brass,  and  united  with  tin 
constitutes  bronze,  which  is  harder  and  more  tenacious  than  pure 
copper,  and  of  which  ai'e  manufactured  bells,  cannons,  statues,  &c. 
The  copper,  of  a  yellowish  red,  serves  to  harden  gold  and  silver 
without  perceptibly  altering  their  color.  Being  extremely  te- 
nacious, it  can  be  drawn  out  into  very  slender  threads,  and  rolled 
into  sheets  thinner  than  paper.  It  is  the  most  sonorous  of 
metals. 

The  Pyrenees.  —  These  mountains,  next  to  the  Alps  the 
most  beautiful  in  Europe,  extend  between  the  two  seas  like  a 
gigantic  rampart.  There  are  said  to  be  75  passes,  of  which  28 
may  be  crossed  on  horseback,  and  7  in  wheeled  carriages.  In  the 
Pyrenees  are  found  very  beautiful  valleys,  many  rivers,  thermal 
springs,  renowned  baths,  and  some  mines  of  iron  and  cobalt.  There 
may  be  encountered  rare  specimens  of  a  kind  of  ivild  goat,  of 
singular  agility  and  strength,  which  inhabits  the  highest  peaks, 
and  attracts  attention  by  its  long,  fluted  horns,  which  curve  to 
such  a  degree  as  even  to  reach  its  tail,  when  the  animal  erects  its 
head  and  throws  them  backward.  These  mountains  also  produce 
vast  numbers  of  marmots,  and  chamois,  or  izards,  incessantly 
pursued  by  bears,  which  are  in  their  turn  the  objects  of  a  very 
dangerous  chase,  anid  when  taken  alive  are  sold  to  the  exhibiters 
of  wild  beasts.         / 

The  Cantabrian  Mountains.  —  This  chain  is  a  continu- 
ation of  that  of  the  Pyrenees,  but  of  much  smaller  dimensions. 
It  is  divided  into  the  Mountains  of  Biscay  at  the  east.  Mountains 
of  Asturias  in  the  centre,  and  Mountains  of  Galicia  at  the  west, 
presenting  in  almost  every  direction  plateaus,  barren,  like  steppes, 
Avhich  take  the  place  of  valleys  on  the  sides  of  a  great  number  of 
the  mountains  of  the  Peninsula.  These  mountains,  formerly  well 
wooded,  have  been  in  a  great  measure  despoiled  to  aid  the  ex- 
ploration of  the  rich  mines  of  excellent  iron,  of  which  the  famous 
Toledo  blades  were  formerly  made.  Tolerably  abundant  mines 
of  pit  coal  are  now  also  made  available. 

The  Iberian  Mountains.  —  From  the  midst  of  the  Can- 
tabrian Mountains   proceeds,  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  the 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  315 

chain  of  the  Iberian  Mountains,  which  extend  all  along  the  east- 
ern coasts  of  Spain,  at  a  greater  or  less  distance  from  the  sea. 
At  an  ancient  period  silver  mines  were  worked  there  for  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time,  but  abandoned  since  the  discovery  of  the 
rich  repositories  of  precious  metals  in  America :  however,  efforts 
are  now  being  made  to  resume  their  operations.  Upon  the  high- 
est summits  may  yet  be  seen  the  fleet  wild  goat,  almost  entirely 
disappeared  from  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  and  the  thick-set  muf- 
Jlon,  the  wild  and  primitive  type  of  our  sheep.  These  animals 
are  pursued  by  a  species  of  lynx  (the  loup  cervier,)  a  large  wild 
cat,  of  a  bright  red  with  dark  brown  spots.  Both  agile  and  strong, 
the  lynx  climbs  trees  in  order  to  chase  the  squirrels,  or  surprise 
the  birds  in  their  nests  ;  or  placing  itself  in  ambuscade  on  a  low 
branch,  it  darts  thence  upon  a  fawn  or  roebuck,  leaps  upon  its 
neck,  and  there  clings  until  it  has  strangled  it ;  it  then  tears  a 
hole  in  the  back  of  its  head,  and  sucks  away  its  brains  through 
this  aperture.  This  terrible  destroyer  of  game  is  remarkably 
neat,  and  its  pretty  coat  furnishes  a  much  esteemed  fur. 

Sierra  Guadarama.  —  From  the  Iberian  Mountains  issues, 
in  a  south-westerly  direction,  a  chain  whose  name  of  sierra 
(which  signifies  saw)  indicates  its  abrupt  and  bristling  aspect ; 
this  is  the  Sierra  Guadarama,  which  extends  under  different 
names  as  far  as  Cape  Roca  in  Portugal,  where  it  assumes  that  of 
Sierra  Estrella.  Its  surface  is  generally  bare  and  sterile ;  but 
various  useful  mineral  substances  are  there  explored,  among 
others  the  jet  or  pitch  coal,  a  species  of  fossil  carbon,  of  a  black 
color,  which  is  easily  ignited,  but  yields  much  less  heat  than  pit 
coal.  The  jet  is  of  a  shining  black,  and  susceptible  of  a  beauti- 
ful polish ;  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  ornamental  articles, 
such  as  buttons,  eardrops,  necklaces,  and  mourning  ornaments 
generally. 

Sierra  Morena.  —  This  chain,  farther  south,  and  parallel 
to  the  preceding,  derives  its  name  of  Black  Mountain  (More- 
na) less  from  lofty  forests,  of  which  it  is  almost  entirely  destitute, 
than  from  the  dense  thickets  of  arbutus,  and  other  shrubs  of  a 
sombre  foliage,  which  carpet  its  sides.  This  chain,  with  rounded 
summits  and  desolate  slopes,  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  resorts 


316  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE^ 

of  robbers  tnat  is  to  be  found  in  Spain,  and  the  traveller  crosses 
it  with  fear  and  trembling.  This  country  claims  the  first  rank  in 
Europe  for  the  production  of  mercury,  which  has  been  explored 
at  Almaden'  (the  mine)  for  nearly  20  centuries.  The  labor  of 
these  mines  was  formerly  performed  by  convicts  —  mutinous 
gangs,  difficult  to  control ;  it  is  now  entirely  accomplished  by  free 
laborers.  Mercury  is  thence  transported  to  Seville  in  leather 
bottles,  discharged  in  the  pits  of  the  royal  magazines,  and  after- 
wards poured  into  iron  bottles,  hermetically  sealed  by  means  of  a 
screw  cap.  This  chain  extends  as  far  as  Cape  St.  Vincent,  in 
Portugal,  where  it  bears  the  name  of  Mountains  of  Algarve. 

Sierra  Nevada.  —  Sierra  Nevada,  (or  snowy  mountain,) 
the  highest  chain  in  Spain,  is  situated  south  of  the  preceding,  and 
but  a  little  distance  from  the  sea  shore.  Nowhere,  perhaps,  does 
one  remark  so  striking  a  contrast  as  between  the  eternal  snows 
which  crown  the  highest  summits  of  the  Nevada  and  the  delight- 
ful valleys  which  are  found  at  its  base,  where  the  sugar  cane,  pine- 
apple, cactus,  and  banana  adorn  even  the  garden  of  the  poor,  so 
that  the  astonished  traveller  may  in  one  day  pass  from  a  burning 
clime  to  icy  peaks,  and  survey  all  the  successive  phases  of  vege- 
tation, from  the  verdure  of  the  tropics  to  the  plants  which  flourish 
in  frigid  Lapland.  These  mountains  contain  the  richest  had 
mines  in  Europe. 

The  Apennines.  —  This  chain,  which  commences  at  the 
point  where  the  French  Alps  slope  towards  the  sea,  proceeds  first 
in  an  easterly  direction,  and  afterwards  descends  to  the  extremity 
of  Italy,  extending  its  ramifications  on  every  side.  At  the  point 
w^here  the  Apennines  diverge  towards  the  south-east  are  found 
the  famous  quarries  of  Carrara  marble,  which,  from  ancient  to 
modem  times,  have  furnished  for  20  centuries  the  finest  materials 
for  sculptors  and  architects.  Below,  in  Tuscany,  are  found  re- 
nowned alabasters,  and  lower  yet,  near  Rome,  important  mines 
of  alum,  a  species  of  salt,  which  is  first  calcined  in  the  fire,  and 
then  dissolved  in  water  in  order  to  crystallize  it.  The  pure  alum, 
of  a  w^hite  color  and  an  astringent  taste,  is  employed  in  medicine ; 
in  the  arts  it  is  used  principally  for  fixing  most  of  the  colors  on 
fabrics,  for  imparting  firmness  to  tallow,  for  preventing  paper 
from  blotting,  and  for  preserving  skins  from  the  attacks  of  worms. 


I 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  317 

The  Apennines  are  especially  noted  for  volcanoes  of  all  kinds 
—  volcanoes  of  mud,  at  the  north  of  the  peninsula ;  extinct  volca- 
woes, whose  craters  are  generally  occupied  by  lakes;  and  solfataras, 
or  volcanoes  in  miniature,  emitting,  through  crevices  of  greater  or 
less  breadth,  vapors  strongly  impregnated  with  sulphur,  which 
becomes  deposited  on  the  borders,  and  is  collected  for  commerce. 
Near  the  city  of  Naples  rises  an  active  volcano,  the  celebrated 
Vesuvius,  whose  first  eruption,  in  the  year  A.  D.  79,  ingulfed 
beneath  torrents  of  lava  the  two  cities  of  Pompeii  and  Hercula- 
neum,  which,  after  the  lapse  of  many  centuries,  have  been  dis- 
interred in  an  extraordinary  state  of  preservation.  This  volcano 
is  of  little  elevation,  but  it  is  the  only  one  which  now  exists  in 
motion  on  the  continental  portion  of  Europe.  The  border  of  the 
crater  at  the  summit  is  about  half  a  league  in  circumference ;  one 
can  often  descend  into  the  bosom  of  this  vast  tunnel,  whence  va- 
pors and  smoke  are  continually  rising.  Long  streams  of  lava 
cover  the  outer  sides  of  the  mountain ;  among  the  most  recent 
effusions,  the  guides  will  sometimes  indicate  those  which  appear 
to  be  entirely  cold,  and  yet  a  stick  thrust  into  them  may  be  drawn 
out  lighted. 

The  Dinaric  Alps.  —  This  chain,  a  prolongation  of  the 
Eastern  Alps,  extends  from  north-west  to  south-east,  along  the 
coasts  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  to  a  certain  point  where  it  divides  into 
two  principal  branches,  to  which  we  shall  presently  advert. 
These  mountains,  which  are  very  steep  and  wild,  are  covered 
with  forests  of  firs  and  oaks.  The  latter,  as  we  have  elsewhere 
remarked,  nourish  with  their  acorns  great  numbers  of  swine, 
especially  in  the  eastern  portion,  —  Servia,  —  whilst  at  the  west, 
near  the  coast  of  Dalmatia,  they  furnish  much  amadou,  or  German 
tinder.  This  substance  is  obtained  from  certain  mushrooms, 
which  grow  on  the  oaks ;  it  is  prepared  by  removing  the  upper 
part  of  the  cap,  which  is  hard  and  ligneous,  and  the  lower  layer, 
which  is  too  soft,  after  which  the  substance  is  cut  in  slices,  which 
are  steeped  in  water  to  soften  them,  and  afterwards  beaten  on  a 
block  with  a  wooden  mallet  in  order  to  spread  them  ;  each  sheet 
of  amadou  is  dipped  in  saltpetre  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  it 
more  inflammable. 

These  mountains  produce  considerable  numbers  of  wild  beasts, 
27  * 


318  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

such  as  hears,  which  the  people  of  the  country  sometimes,  it  is 
said,  capture  by  the  aid  of  a  cask  of  brandy,  mixed  with  honey ; 
as  the  animals,  after  imbibing  this  liquor,  become  intoxicated, 
and  exhaust  themselves  by  dancing.  Wolves,  which  are  very 
common,  are  strangled  by  means  of  iron  traps  set  for  them; 
they  are,  however,  but  little  formidable,  except  to  the  sheepfolds. 
Wild  hoars,  stags,  and  roehuchs  are  quite  rare. 

The  Balkan  Mountains.  —  From  the  Dinaric  Alps,  and 
towards  the  east,  the  Balkan  chain  detaches  itself,  whose  name 
signifies  difficult  defile,  and  which  erects  itself  like  a  formi- 
dable rampart,  traversed  only  by  a  small  number  of  dangerous 
routes,  almost  impracticable  for  an  army.  Forests  of  beeches 
clothe  its  wild  summits. 

The  Pindus.  —  The  southern  continuation  of  the  Dinaric 
Alps  is  known  under  the  name  of  Mountains  of  Alhania  and 
Pindus,  now  for  the  most  part  destitute  of  wood,  but  where  much 
hoxwood  is  still  procured.  Olympus,  which  by  Greek  mythology 
was  entitled  the  throne  of  the  gods,  although  not  the  highest 
summit  of  the  Pindus,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful.  Parnassus, 
the  cherished  mountain  of  the  poets,  situated  at  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  chain,  is  still  less  elevated. 

Thessaly,  whither  it  is  affirmed  the  first  Greek  navigators,  the 
Argonauts,  brought  the  pheasant,  (originally  from  the  borders  of 
the  Phase,  at  the  foot  of  the  Caucasus,)  is  still  the  favorite  resort 
of  these  birds,  of  which  the  chain  of  the  Pindus  possesses  such 
numerous  flocks  that  they  may  be  heard  whispering  on  all  sides 
at  sunset.  The  turtle  dove,  at  the  approach  of  spring,  cooes  at  the 
door  of  the  Turkish  peasant,  who  compassionately  suspends  a 
basket  on  the  finest  tree  of  his  garden,  accompanying  the  act 
with  the  exclamation,  "  Allah  protect  thee  ! "  and  there  this  gentle 
bird  estabhshes  its  nest.  In  the  following  spring  it  conducts  to 
the  same  places  its  mated  progeny,  and  soon  each  tree  has  its 
basket  and  its  new  family.  For  guarding  and  defending  their 
flocks  the  shepherds  of  the  Epirus  maintain  excellent  and  vigor- 
ous dogs,  which  are  descended  from  the  famous  Molosses,  so  cele- 
brated in  antiquity. 

There  is  also  found  in  Albania  (ancient  Epirus)  a  vast  mine 
of  mineral  pitch,  or  hitumen,  which  is  remarkably  pure  and  abun- 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  319 

dant.  Here  and  there  are  crevices,  through  which  escape  gases 
that  sometimes  accidentally  become  inflamed,  and  bum  several 
weeks  in  succession. 

Many  myths  have  been  related  by  the  ancients  concerning 
these  flames,  which  were  said  to  overrun  the  country  without 
damaging  the  verdure ;  among  these  wild  mountains  they  also 
located  the  Styx,  the  river  of  hell. 

Sect.  4.  Plateaus  of  Europe.  —  The  plateaus  of  Europe 
are  too  few  in  number,  and  too  inconsiderable  to  have  ever 
acquired  in  the  European  continent  the  same  degree  of  importance 
that  they  possess  in  Asia  and  Africa.  They  are  six  in  number, 
and  next  claim  our  attention,  although  we  shall  not  enter  into 
particular  details  concerning  them. 

The  Swiss  Plateau.  —  The  Swiss  plateau,  which  is  esti- 
mated to  be  only  1800  feet  in  elevation,  is  situated  between 
the  Jura  and  the  Alps,  and  bounded  on  the  north-east  by  the 
Lake  of  Constance,  of  which  we  shall  speak  more  particularly 
hereafter. 

The  aspect  of  the  Swiss  plateau  is  that  of  a  very  undulating 
plain,  watered  by  multitudes  of  streams  and  rivers,  and  sprinkled 
with  lakes,  hills,  fields,  and  forests.  The  country  presents  every 
where  a  fertile,  flourishing,  and  well-cultivated  appearance.  The 
land  is  divided  among  numerous  proprietors,  but  each  peasant 
diligently  cultivates  his  few  fields,  on  the  products  of  which  only 
slight  taxes  are  levied. 

The  climate  is  temperate,  the  air  keen,  but  generally  salu- 
brious, except  in  the  depths  of  a  few  valleys,  where  are  found 
cretins,  unfortunate  idiots,  with  a  stupid  air  and  hideous  goitre. 

The  minerals  are  iron,  salt,  a  little  lead  and  pit  coal.  A  great 
number  of  renowned  baths  present  attractions  to  travellers. 

The  vegetables  are  those  of  the  temperate  countries ;  the 
plateau  produces  wines,  fruit,  and  grain.  In  the  northern  por- 
tion, especially,  much  wheat  is  sown,  of  the  species  called  spelt ; 
of  this  grain  bread  is  made,  and  also  semoule,  a  substance  which 
is  prepared  by  first  separating  in  the  mill  the  hulls  and  the  bran, 
after  which  the  wheat  is  bruised  and  reduced  to  very  small,  dry 
grains,  or  semoule,  which  constitutes  an  important  article  of  food. 
The  farina  of  another  variety — starch  spelt — furnishes  a  very 


820  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

excellent  starch.  The  spelt  yields  less  abundant  crops  than  the 
ordinary  wheat,  but  it  possesses  the  advantage  of  ripening  more 
easily,  in  somewhat  cold  climates.  Forests  of  oaks,  beeches,  and 
firs  abound  in  Switzerland ;  the  pastures  are  every  where  excel- 
lent, and  nourish  especially  much  large  cattle.  Immense  orchards 
overshadow  the  villages  and  embellish  the  landscapes  ;  in  Thur- 
govia,  near  Lake  Constance,  they  form  a  forest  of  many  leagues 
in  extent. 

The  animals  are  principally  horses,  oxen,  and  cows,  of  a  strong 
race,  and  of  the  finest  growth,  giving  rise  to  the  manufacture  of 
enoimous  quantities  of  butter  and  celebrated  cheeses ;  the  num- 
ber of  sheep  and  goats  is  comparatively  inconsiderable ;  game 
and  wild  beasts  have,  in  a  great  measure,  disappeared  with  the 
progressive  increase  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  population  naturally  exhibit  many  points  of  resemblance 
to  those  of  the  Swiss  Alps,  of  which  we  have  previously  spoken ; 
but  they  have  less  originality  and  variety  of  manners.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Swiss  plateau  are  of  the  German 
race  and  tongue  ;  those  of  the  south-west,  of  Burgundian  origin, 
speak  French.  All  are  remarkable  for  a  lively  and  profound 
national  sentiment  and  an  ardent  love  of  country.  Proud  of 
their  heroic  ancestors,  and  jealous  of  their  republican  independ- 
ence, preserved  during  more  than  five  centuries,  in  the  heart  of 
monarchical  Europe,  the  Swiss  have  often  displayed  great 
courage,  noble  firmness,  and  an  unwavering  fidelity  to  their 
oath.  But  the  diversity  of  religion  (the  greater  part  are  Prot- 
estants) has  often  divided  them,  and  established  between  the 
various  cantons  a  perceptible  difference  in  cultivation  and  social 
development. 

Plateau  of  Bavaria.  —  The  plateau  of  Bavaria  is  the 
continuation  of  the  Swiss  plateau.  It  is  situated  between  the 
Alps,  German  Jura,  and  the  Forest  of  Bohemia.  It  is  the  high- 
est of  Upper  Europe,  being  on  an  average  at  least  2000  feet  in 
elevation. 

Its  aspect  is  generally  monotonous  and  gloomy.  Fertile  coun- 
tries are  met  with,  but  the  soil  is  usually  unproductive ;  sometimes 
dry  and  arid,  consisting  of  vast  heaths,  sometimes  dotted  with 
small  lakes  abounding  in  fish,  or  rendered  marshy  by  the  inunda- 


THE  CONTINENT  OP   EUROPE.  321 

tions  of  rivers.  It  is  not  undulated  and  smiling  like  the  Swiss 
plateau. 

Climate, —  The  air  is  also  more  keen  and  cold,  and  the  climate 
more  variable ;  the  winters  are  long  and  severe ;  no  mountains 
shelter  the  country  from  the  cold  and  boisterous  winds  which 
descend  from  the  Alps,  so  that  the  vine  and  many  other  no  less 
delicate  productions  could  not  succeed  there. 

The  minerals,  animals,  and  vegetables  offer  nothing  remarkable, 
or  which  differ  from  what  are  found  throughout  temperate  Eu- 
rope. Hops  succeed  better  than  fruit  trees,  and  are  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  beer,  which  has  a  wide  reputation.  The  hop  is 
an  herbaceous  and  climbing  plant,  which  is  cultivated  in  all  the 
central  portions  of  Europe,  on  account  of  the  small  cones  which 
constitute  its  fruit,  and  to  which  the  beer  owes  its  lively  bitter 
taste  and  its  characteristic  flavor.  Hops,  in  order  to  yield  good 
and  abundant  products,  require  much  care  ;  a  hop  plantation 
may  continue  in  a  bearing  condition  from  15  to  20  years ;  the 
stalks  are  sustained  by  props,  from  20  to  25  feet  high,  to  which 
they  are  attached  by  rushes  or  wisps  of  straw.  The  stalks  being 
cut,  the  cones  are  removed  and  dried  ;  in  the  north,  brick  ovens 
are  generally  used  for  drying  them,  after  which  they  are  spread 
for  three  weeks  in  a  well-aired  room,  and  then  packed  in  bags 
for  exportation. 

Population.  —  The  Bavarians  are  gay  and  good  natured,  but 
of  a  cool  temperament.  They  are  averse  to  labor;  their  life, 
moreover,  is  said  to  be  quite  worldly,  and  their  manners  some- 
what corrupt,  even  beyond  the  precincts  of  the  large  cities.  Beer 
is  their  only  beverage,  and  they  have  the  reputation  of  being  the 
greatest  drinkers  in  Germany.  The  majority  are  Catholics,  but 
their  religion  consists  principally  in  ceremonies  and  superstitions. 

Plateau  of  Bohemia.  —  Bohemia  is  encircled  by  the  four 
chains  of  which  we  have  made  previous  mention  —  the  Erz- 
Gebirge,  the  Mountains  of  the  Giants,  the  Moravian  Mountains, 
and  the  Forest  of  Bohemia. 

Aspect.  —  This  is  a  fertile  and  undulating  country,  intersected 
with  hills  and  ravines,  where  nothing  is  more  rare  than  a  plain 
of  any  extent,  or  a  high  mountain.  The  plateau  slopes  towards 
the  north,  where  it  is  warmer  and  more  spring-like  than  at  the 


322  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATUEE. 

south ;  it  is  said  to  include  more  than  20,000  ponds,  generally 
very  well  stocked  with  fish. 

Climate.  —  Owing  to  the  mountains  which  encompass  it,  and 
which  serve  particularly  to  screen  it  from  the  cold  north-east 
winds,  Bohemia  enjoys  a  climate  sufficiently  temperate  to  admit 
of  the  growth  of  the  vine,  which  yields  considerable  products. 

Minerals  are  the  principal  wealth  of  Bohemia.  We  have 
already  named,  in  connection  with  the  Erz-Gebirge,  its  rubies, 
garnets,  topazes,  and  other  precious  stones,  employed  by  the  lapi- 
dary. It  likewise  contains  kaolin  and  sands,  which  have  im- 
parted to  its  porcelain,  as  well  as  to  its  glass  and  crystals,  a 
world-wide  superiority.  Its  baths  are  numerous  and  of  great 
celebrity.  This  country  also  furnishes  graphite,  improperly 
called  black  lead  ;  for  this  substance  is  composed  of  almost  pure 
carbon,  which  is  sawed  into  slender  sticks,  and  afterwards  encased 
in  wood  to  form  pencils.  The  mines  of  Bohemia  yield  also  a 
little  silver,  much  pit  coal,  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  tin,  which 
metal,  being  easily  melted  and  combined  with  others,  is  very 
valuable  and  useful.  With  copper  it  constitutes  bronze  and  bell 
metal ;  copper  is  plated  with  a  thin  layer  of  tin,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve it  from  rust,  called  verdigris,  always  dangerous  if  it  be- 
comes introduced  into  food ;  mixed  with  mercury  it  is  used  for 
the  plating  of  glass  ;  tin  plate  is  made  by  overlaying  iron  plates 
with  a  coating  of  tin. 

But  of  all  these  minerals,  that  which  presents  us  with  the 
most  wonderful  phenomena  is  the  tripoli,  a  clayey  substance  of  a 
reddish  or  rosy  tint,  and  which,  on  account  of  its  hard  grain,  is 
used,  mixed  with  oil  or  sulphur,  for  polishing  silver  and  other 
metals.  The  tripoli  is  found  in  many  places,  particularly  at  Bilin, 
in  Bohemia,  where  it  forms  a  bed  of  more  than  twelve  feet  in 
thickness,  which  extends  over  a  considerable  space ;  elsewhere 
vast  soils  and  even  entire  rocks  are  composed  of  it.  This  tripoli 
consists  entirely  of  the  shells  of  infusoria  —  animalcula  so 
small,  that  it  is  estimated  that  at  every  friction,  made  with  a 
quantity  equivalent  in  bulk  to  the  head  of  a  pin,  20,000,000 
of  them  are  crushed.  The  duration  of  life  in  these  animalcula 
varies  from  a  few  hours  to  several  days.  They  have  been  exam- 
ined through  microscopes  of  great  magnifying  power,  and  it  has 


THE   CONTINENT   OF   EUROPE. 


328 


been  ascertained  that  many  are  carnivorous,  and  subsist  upon 
smaller  species.  Some  remain  motionless,  apparently  dead,  en- 
veloped in  earth  or  dry  sand  during  years ;  but  strange  to  relate, 
if  a  drop  of  water  is  applied  to  them,  they  revive  and  commence 


Specimens  of  Tripoli. 

swimming  with  the  same  activity  as  before.  And  all  these  little 
beings  have  their  use  in  nature  ;  they  maintain  the  purity  of  the 
air  and  water,  by  appropriating  to  themselves  the  particles  pro- 
duced by  the  decomposition  of  vegetables  and  animals;  they 
serve  in  their  turn  for  creatures  of  a  superior  order ;  under  the 
name  of  Finland  farina,  or  mountain  Jlour,  they  are  capable 
of  assuaging  the  miseries  of  a  famine  in  the  countries  of  the 
north ;  the  deposits  which  they  leave  at  the  bottom  of  the  water 
may  be  used  to  fertilize  the  land.  All  this  coincides  with  the 
language  of  the  eloquent  Scotch  preacher  Chalmers,  who  asserts 
that  "  every  atom  may  contain  in  its  bosom  an  animated  and  active 
life,  and  that  if  we  could  remove  the  mysterious  veils  which  hide 
them  from  our  eyes,  we  should  be  led  to  contemplate  spectacles 


324  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

no  less  marvellous  than  those  of  the  firmament ;  the  smallest 
point,  scarcely  recognizable  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  being 
large  enough  to  afford  the  Creator  a  new  opportunity  for  display- 
ing his  omnipotence." 

The  vegetables  and  animals  merit  little  comment.  The  animal 
kingdom  includes  much  game,  and  among  other  species  pheasants. 

The  population  belong,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  Slavonic  race, 
that  great  human  family  which  has  occupied  all  the  eastern  part 
of  Europe ;  the  other  inhabitants  are  Germans.  The  Slavoni- 
ans of  Bohemia  style  themselves  2'scheJdies,  (the  first,  or  those  in 
advance.)  Although  greatly  mixed  with  the  Germans,  they  have 
preserved  their  language  and  their  national  manners.  They  are 
gay,  lovers  of  pleasure,  Sensual,  passionately  fond  of  music,  tol- 
erably well  informed,  and  less  industrious  than  the  Germans. 
The  greater  part  adhere  to  the  Catholic  religion. 

Plateau  op  Transylvania.  —  Transylvania,  a  plateau  of 
little  elevation,  (about  1000  feet  above  the  sea,)  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  with  steep  and  difficult 
passes,  forms  a  naturally  fortified,  military  bulwark,  against  which 
the  waves  of  invasion  have  often  broken  or  divided.  Transyl- 
vania, whose  name  signifies  beyond  the  forests,  is  a  mountainous 
and  wooded  country,  of  a  sornewhat  harsh  climate,  and  possessing 
scarcely  any  other  riches  than  those  which  we  have  already  indi- 
cated, in  connection  with  its  mountains  —  mines  and  gold  wash- 
ings, an  abundance  of  mineral  salt,  certain  precious  stones,  copper, 
and  lead. 

Of  the  population,  which  is  composed  of  Hungarians,  Ger- 
mans, and  Wallachians,  we  shall  speak  more  particularly  in 
treating  of  the  low  plains. 

Plateau  of  Old  Castile.  —  This  plateau,  situated  be- 
tween the  Cantabrian  and  Iberian  Mountain,  and  the  chain  of 
the  Sierra  Guadarama,  is  the  most  elevated  in  Europe  ;  for  it  is 
about  2500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Its  aspect  is  that  of  immense,  bare,  dry,  and  dusty  plains,  where 
even  the  cultivated  fields  present  a  desolate  appearance,  and 
where  the  scanty  villages,  with  their  thatched  roofs,  assume,  in 
consequence  of  the  reddish  dust  with  which  the  air  is  filled,  a 
color  so  like  the  sun,  that  they  cannot  be  distinguished  at  a  slight 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  325 

distance.  This  plain  is  occasionally  fissured  by  broad  and  deep 
ravines,  through  which  flow  rivers,  and  where  sheltered  from  the 
winds,  the  orchard  trees  flourish. 

The  climate,  naturally  dry,  is  tempered  by  its  great  elevation, 
and  by  the  blast  of  the  impetuous  winds,  which  blow  in  every 
direction ;  no  tree  can  resist  the  action  of  these  violent  tempests, 
creating  the  whirlwinds  of  fine  dust  to  which  we  have  already 
referred. 

The  vegetation  is  generally  poor,  except  in  the  ravines.  It 
consists  only  of  heath  and  meagre  pasturage  for  the  wandering 
sheep ;  there  are  no  trees,  not  even  bushes,  the  Castilians  being 
persuaded  that  trees  attract  the  birds,  which  destroy  the  grain  and 
fruits.  In  certain  portions  of  the  plateau,  however,  the  soil  is 
composed  of  a  fine  black  mould,  producing  wheat  and  other  grains 
in  such  abundance,  that  in  favorable  years  the  greater  part  is 
suffered  to  rot  on  the  ground,  for  the  want  of  good  roads,  and 
means  of  turning  it  to  account ;  thus  old  Castile  is  capable  of  be- 
coming the  granary  of  Spain  and  the  neighboring  countries; 
this  wheat  is  of  excellent  quality.  Barley  and  the  vine  are  also 
cultivated. 

Animals.  —  Old  Castile  is  not  deficient  in  cattle ;  it  abounds 
especially  in  cows,  whose  butter  might  be  rendered  profitable,  if 
the  inhabitants  understood  the  art  of  salting  it.  But  the  princi- 
pal wealth  of  these  high  plains  is  the  merino  sheep.  The  wool 
called  Lyonese  is  always  sold  in  the  markets  as  wool  of  the  first 
quality ;  that  of  Segovia,  which  formerly  ranked  first,  has  greatly 
depreciated,  since,  through  negligence,  the  sheep  have  become  in- 
fected with  disease. 

Population.  —  The  inhabitants  of  this  natural  fortress  are 
grave  and  serious,  like  their  country.  They  possess,  in  the 
highest  degree,  the  virtues  and  vices  which  characterize  the 
Spaniards ;  thus,  by  their  active  bravery  and  perseverance,  they 
have  established  their  supremacy,  and  the  Castilian  tongue, 
throughout  the  Peninsula. 

Plateau  of  New  Castile.  —  This  plateau,  situated  south 
of  the  preceding,  between  the  Siei-ra  Guadarama  and  the  Sierra 
Morena,  is  considerably  less  elevated  than  Old  Castile,  to  which 
it  has  otherwise  much  resemblance. 
28 


326  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

Its  aspect  is  less  gloomy  and  desolate,  but  it  is  completely  des- 
titute of  trees,  except  in  the  valleys  and  in  the  neighborhood  of 
rivers. 

The  climate  is  warmer,  but  always  exposed  to  cold  and  vio- 
lent winds. 

Vegetation.  —  The  lands  of  New  Castile  would  be  capable  of 
all  kinds  of  productions  if  they  were  not  parched  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun,  or  if  pains  were  taken  to  irrigate  them,  by  means  of  the 
numerous  rivers  which  traverse  these  plains.  The .  dearth  of 
wood  is  such,  that  in  the  greater  part  of  the  country,  small  shrubs, 
and  certain  grasses  which  are  collected  in  the  fields,  constitute 
the  only  fuel  for  cooking  and  heating  ovens.  Wheat,  a  little 
barley,  and  wine,  a  tolerable  quantity  of  olive  oil,  and  important 
crops  of  saffron,  are  almost  the  only  products.  Many  sweet  adorns 
are  also  consumed  there. 

In  its  animals  and  population  New  Castile  differs  little  from 
the  Old.  The  wool  of  the  merino  sheep  is,  however,  of  inferior 
quality. 

The  most  southern  and  richest  portion  of  New  Castile  is  La 
Mancka,  a  lower  plain,  separated  from  New  Castile,  properly  so 
called,  by  the  small  chain  of  the  Toledo  Mountains.  In  this 
province  are  found  the  famous  mercury  mines  of  Almaden. 

Sect.  o.  Plains  of  Europe.  —  Plain  of  Russia.  —  All 
the  northern  portion  of  Europe  forms  an  immense  low  plain,  which 
extends  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Baltic  and  White  Sea,  and  from 
the  Ural  Mountains  to  the  Carpathian.  This  space  is  traversed 
by  no  mountain  chain  capable  of  intercepting  the  icy  winds  of 
the  poles,  and  its  uniformity  is  only  relieved  by  two  chains  of 
hills,  which,  stretching  from  north-east  to  south-west,  divide  the 
whole  country  into  three  parts,  to  which  may  be  added  a  fourth, 
—  Poland,  —  situated  farther  west,  and  which  possesses  certain 
distinct  characteristics. 

Southern  Russia.  —  This  portion,  situated  north  of  the  Black 
Sea,  is  especially  characterized  by  its  steppes,  destitute  of  trees 
and  bushes.  These  are  immense  and  uninterrupted  plains, 
carpeted  in  the  spring  and  autumn  with  abundant  grass,  covered 
in  winter  with  snow,  which  the  wind  blows  and  drifts,  and  ob- 
scured in  summer  by  clouds  of  extremely  fine  dust,  constantly 


THE  CONTINENT  OP   EUROPE.  827 

hovering  above  the  soil.  These  plains,  which  terminate  at  the 
Black  Sea  in  a  perpendicular  terrace,  from  120  to  180  feet  in 
height,  are  furrowed  here  and  there  by  rivers  and  streams,  flow- 
ing through  steep  and  profound  ravines,  often  impassable  to 
shepherds  and  their  flocks,  and  which  in  winter,  when  filled  up 
with  snow,  present  the  greatest  perils. 

The  climate  is  that  of  a  country  of  steppes  ;  it  varies  from  one 
extreme  to  the  other;  only  during  a  few  days  in  spring  and 
autumn  do  the  steppes  enjoy  that  medium  temperature  to  which 
their  geographical  position  would  seem  to  entitle  them.  The 
winter  is  often  as  severe  as  on  the  borders  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  and 
violent  gusts  of  wind,  which  prevent  the  snow  from  acquiring  any 
solidity,  interpose  obstacles  to  sledge  travelling  —  that  rapid  means 
of  communication  so  highly  appreciated  by  the  Russians.  When 
the  snow  melts,  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  transformed  into  an  im- 
mense sheet  of  mud,  almost  impassable,  and  which  alternately 
freezes  and  thaws  during  several  weeks ;  when  the  spring  has 
actually  arrived,  the  steppe  is  clothed  with  luxuriant  vegetation, 
and  the  earth  resembles  a  vast  carpet  of  verdure,  very  monoto- 
nous however,  and  presenting  no  fine  and  velvety  turf.  In  July 
the  heat  becomes  excessive  ;  the  dried  earth  cracks  in  a  thousand 
places,  and  the  grass  turns  yellow,  as  if  scorched  by  fire.  At 
this  period  thousands  of  horses  and  horned  cattle  perish ;  it  be- 
comes necessary  that  the  small  number  of  springs  which  still 
furnish  water  should  be  guarded  by  sentinels.  Men  and  cattle 
wear  a  languid  and  forlorn  air.  In  September,  the  night  dews 
recommence  ;  soon  follow  clouds  and  rain ;  the  plain  is  once  more 
covered  with  grass,  and  men  and  animals  are  revived.  Although 
the  autumnal  season  is  agreeable,  it  is  only  of  short  duration; 
October,  with  its  cold  rains  and  fogs,  is  the  herald  of  winter. 

Vegetation.  —  Noxious  plants,  or  hurian,  are  one  of  the  princi- 
pal obstacles  which  the  steppes  oppose  to  cultivation.  Thistles, 
for  example,  often  attain  even  the  dimensions  of  trees,  and  shelter 
beneath  their  branches  the  huts  of  the  inhabitants ;  in  certain 
places  they  are  so  dense,  that  they  form  thickets,  in  the  midst  of 
which  a  Cossack,  mounted  on  horseback,  may  conceal  himself. 
The  hitter  wormwood  sometimes  rises  six  feet  in  height,  and 
covers  great  spaces ;  elsewhere  grows  in  abundance  the  witch  of 


328  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

the  wind,  which,  withered  by  the  heat  of  summer,  is  borne  on  the 
whirlwinds,  and  afterwards,  in  its  rapid  flight,  becoming  entangled 
with  other  plants  of  the  same  species,  the  whole  mass  is  finally 
precipitated  into  the  Black  Sea.  The  burian  even  gradually  en- 
croaches upon  the  pasturage,  and  the  farmer  at  last  sets  it  on  fire, 
in  order  that  a  new  crop  of  grass  may  immediately  spring  from 
its  ashes.  Often,  in  default  of  sufficient  precautions,  or  in  conse- 
quence of  accidental  circumstances,  these  fires  extend  over  im- 
mense spaces,  destroying  plantations,  flocks,  and  even  entire 
villages. 

Nature  evidently  designed  the  steppes  of  Russia  for  a  pastoral 
and  nomadic  people,  rather  than  for  an  agricultural  population. 
Nevertheless,  the  encouragement  of  the  government  has  induced 
many  German  colonists  and  others  to  establish  themselves  in  these 
countries,  and  to  make  available  for  the  cultivation  of  grain  the 
thick  layer  of  black  mould  which  composes  the  soil.  The  wheat 
of  these  countries,  called  the  wheat  of  Odessa,  is  excellent,  and  of 
extraordinary  abundance ;  it  is  sold  on  the  spot  at  extremely  low 
prices ;  thus  it  is  from  Southern  Russia  that  Western  Europe 
obtains  its  supplies  of  wheat,  whenever  it  is  visited  by  dearth. 
In  certain  particularly  favored  and  sheltered  districts,  vineyards 
are  found,  whose  products  are  of  middling  quality,  but  whose  vine 
stocks  it  is  necessary  to  embed  in  earth  before  the  winter.  One 
production  which  abounds  is  the  melon,  especially  the  waterynelon, 
and  seems  ordained  expressly  to  compensate  for  the  deficiencies 
of  the  steppe.  The  juice  of  these  melons  is  so  abundant  that  it 
is  capable  of  supplying  the  place  of  water ;  at  dinner  and  break- 
fast, throughout  Southern  Russia,  each  guest  cuts  a  slice,  of  which 
lie  tastes  from  time  to  time,  as  in  our  countries  we  should  sip  a 
glass  of  wine  and  water.  Cucumbers  also  occupy  a  prominent 
place  on  the  Russian  table. 

Animals.  —  In  the  high  grass  of  the  steppes  exist  terrier  hares, 
graceful  little  creatures  of  the  jerboa  species,  which  one  encounters 
at  every  step,  erecting  themselves  on  their  hind  legs,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  looking  about  them.  The  women  use  the  fur  of  these 
animals  for  bordering  their  garments,  or  even  for  making  entire 
robes.  These  inoffensive  animals  are  the  principal  food  of  foxes, 
wolves,  wild  dogs,  and  vultures.     The  wolves  of  the  steppes. 


THE  CONTINENT   OP  EUROPE. 


329 


smaller  than  those  of  the  forests,  are  distinguished  by  their  habits 
of  digging  for  themselves  burrows.     They  attack  horses,  sheep, 


Wolf. 

and  sometimes  even  carry  away  children.  Therefore  each  farm 
is  surrounded  by  hedges  12  or  15  feet  in  height.  The  houses 
are  protected  day  and  night  by  numerous  packs  of  half-wild  dogs, 
of  w^hich  no  care  is  taken,  and  which,  as  soon  as  released,  escape 
to  the  steppe  in  pursuit  of  game,  whence  they  only  return  when 
driven  by  the  cold  of  winter.  Bustards  abound  no  less  in  these 
countries  than  in  the  Crimea.  Lizards  and  serpents  are  fre- 
quently met  with ;  numerous  froffs  make  their  appearance  imme- 
diately after  a  rain.  Locusts  ravage  the  fields,  which  seem  as  if 
blasted  by  fire. 

But  the  animals,  which,  together  with  the  w^heat,  constitute  the 
principal  wealth  of  Southern  Russia,  are  its  horses,  sheep,  and 
horned  cattle. 

Notwithstanding  conflicting  statements,  the  steppes  no  longer 
contain  wild  horses.  Certain  great  proprietors  possess  several 
herds,  but  rarely  does  a  single  one  exceed  1000  in  number.  Each 
troop  is  under  the  guardianship  of  a  keeper,  responsible  for  every 
head  of  cattle  lost  or  stolen.  The  keepers  are  fierce  and  deter- 
mined men,  always  on  horseback,  in  order  to  be  on  guard,  lest 
the  horses,  by  straying  to  a  distance,  should  become  exposed  to 


k 


28 


330  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

the  attacks  of  wolves.  They  are  armed  with  a  large  whip,  15 
or  18  feet  in  length,  with  a  noose  or  sling  to  seize  the  horses,  and 
with  a  club  to  fling  at  the  head  of  the  wolves.  In  winter  these 
horses  suffer  cruelly  from  cold  and  hunger.  At  night  they  are 
but  slightly  protected  from  the  north  wind  beneath  a  miserable 
shed  ;  by  day  they  are  obliged  to  resort  to  the  plain,  and  remove 
the  snow  with  their  hoofs  in  order  to  procure  a  little  grass ;  if  the 
inclement  season  is  prolonged  beyond  the  usual  period,  half  of 
them  sometimes  perish.  15  or  20  stallions  of  each  troop  often 
strive  together  in  terrible  combat.  Sometimes  also,  on  occasion 
of  alarm,  they  throw  themselves  upon  the  wolves,  tearing  them 
with  their  teeth,  or  trampling  them  under  foot,  whilst  the  mares 
range  themselves  in  a  circle,  the  colts  being  placed  in  the  centre. 
They  often  kill  the  wolf  with  a  single  blow  of  their  powerful  hoof. 
The  only  labor  which  is  required  of  these  horses  is  to  tread  out 
the  wheat  sheaves  on  the  threshing  floors,  until  purchased  by 
merchants,  or  government  agents,  to  be  trained,  or  driven  to  the 
fairs. 

The  wealth  of  the  nobles  of  these  countries  is  principally  esti- 
mated by  the  number  of  their  sheep.  Some  among  them  possess 
100,000,  the  greater  part  remarkable  for  their  enormous  tails, 
which  consist  almost  wholly  of  a  mass  of  fat,  very  much  in  re- 
quest among  Russian  and  Tartar  epicures.  The  race  of  merino 
sheep  is  rapidly  increasing,  and  the  Russian  wool  is  daily  acquir- 
ing gi'cater  importance. 

Some  idea  may  be  conceived  of  the  immense  number  of  the 
horned  cattle  from  the  fact  that  oxen  are  not  generally  killed  in 
this  country,  as  an  article  of  food,  but  for  the  sake  of  their  tallow 
and  hides.  The  herds  are  composed  of  from  100  to  800  head. 
In  prosperous  years,  when  the  oxen  are  sufficiently  fattened,  they 
are  sent  to  the  tallow  manufactories  or  salgans^  which  include 
vast  yards  or  slaughter  houses,  where  these  animals  are  slain ; 
working  buildings,  consisting  of  rooms  where  the  hides  are  salted, 
and  others,  where  are  vast  caldrons  capable  of  containing  10  or 
15  oxen,  cut  in  fragments ;  a  little  water  is  then  added,  heat  is 
applied,  and  the  tallow  is  soon  seen  swimming  on  the  surface, 
which  is  then  collected  and  placed  in  casks.  Russia  supplies  the 
greater  part  of  Europe  with  tallow.     Sufficient  is  thence  obtained 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  331 

annually  for  the  manufacture  of  700,000,000  of  candles,  and 
100,000,000  pounds  of  soap. 

The  most  original  portion  of  the  population  are  the  Cossacks, 
of  the  Slavonic  race,  like  the  other  Russians,  very  ill  favored, 
but  little  civilized,  almost  nomadic,  and  living  on  the  produce  of 
their  cattle  and  the  fishery.  In  past  centuries  they  formed,  under 
the  conduct  of  their  chief,  called  hetma7i,  a  military  republic, 
"where  every  thing  was  in  common,  and  from  which  women  were 
excluded.  It  is  now  a  very  warlike  population,  which  furnishes 
Russia  with  a  military  force  of  about  100,000  soldiers.  The 
Cossacks  are  invaluable,  as  light  cavalry,  for  protecting  the  flanks 
and  outposts  of  armies. 

Accustomed  to  live  in  the  midst  of  turbulent  tribes,  they  are 
always  on  the  alert,  and  rarely  fall  into  an  ambuscade.  Neither 
have  they  their  equals  in  the  world  for  harassing  troops  beating 
a  retreat.  Rushing  to  the  charge  uttering  a  terrible  huzza,  the 
horsemen  disperse,  each  fighting  on  his  own  account ;  but  their 
instinct  guides  them  more  unerringly  than  all  the  skill  of  a  gen- 
eral. The  western  nations  always  recall  with  terror  their  irrup- 
tions in  1814  and  1815.  The  Cossacks  raise  many  horses  of 
angular  and  inelegant  forms,  but  which  are  inured  to  fatigue, 
rapid  in  their  course,  and  of  a  sobriety  comparable  to  that  of 
the  ass. 

The  other  inhabitants  of  Southern  Russia  are  Russians  proper- 
ly so  called,  (of  whom  we  shall  speak  hereafter,)  and  German  col- 
onists, very  active  and  industrious  agriculturists,  to  whom  the 
country  is  greatly  indebted  for  its  recent  prosperity. 

Central  Russia,  partly  covered  with  immense  forests  of  oaks, 
beeches,  and  firs,  presents  beautiful  cultivated  plains,  fertile  in 
gi'ain  and  fruits.  Wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oats  abound ;  there 
are  also  cherries  and  apples.  Among  the  latter  may  be  found 
certain  species  which  weigh,  singly,  as  much  as  four  pounds,  and 
have  a  very  agreeable  vinous  taste ;  another  very  common 
species  bears  the  name  of  transparent  apples,  and  when  seen  by 
daylight  their  seeds  may  be  counted.  Hemp  and  flax  succeed 
to  perfection,  and  are  of  excellent  quality.  All  these  vegetables 
grow  and  develop  with  remarkable  rapidity;  for  although  the 
winters  are  long  and  cold,  the  summers  are  very  hot  and  dry. 


332  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

The  domestic  animals  —  oxen,  horses,  and  sheep  —  are  very  nu- 
merous ;  much  large  and  small  game  is  hunted ;  the  wolves  are 
formidable  in  winter.  When  the  earth  is  covered  with  a  huge 
bed  of  snow,  and  their  appetites  are  keen,  they  furiously  pursue 
the  sledges,  and  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  abandon  one  of  the 
horses  to  these  animals,  in  order  to  gain  time  to  escape.  Thou- 
sands of  them  are  killed  every  year.  Often,  in  order  to  entice 
them  within  musket  shot,  a  young  pig,  imprisoned  in  a  bag,  is 
paraded  through  the  woods  on  a  sledge :  this  animal,  which  cries 
its  loudest,  attracts  the  wolves  to  the  spot,  where  they  become  the 
prize  of  their  pursuers.  Ordinarily,  however,  the  human  voice 
frightens  them ;  the  sound  of  the  horn,  and  especially  that  of  the 
violin,  puts  them  to  flight ;  the  tinkling  of  bells  also  alarms  them: 
thus  every  sledge  is  provided  accordingly. 

Central  Russia  contains  very  rich  iron  mines.  The  immense 
quantities  of  metals  exported  by  Russia  into  other  countries  are 
chiefly  obtained  from  the  Ural,  and  from  its  possessions  in  Asia. 

This  region  is  the  primitive  country  of  the  Russian  people, 
and  thence  they  have  become  distributed  among  many  neighbor- 
ing provinces.  The  Russians  are  the  most  powerful  nation  of 
the  Slavonian  race.  They  are  of  large  stature,  have  florid  com- 
plexions, robust  frames  formed  for  privation,  and  remarkably 
good  eyesight.  Although  not  gifted  w^ith  the  genius  of  inven- 
tion, they  are  skilful  imitators  of  the  arts  and  manners  of  na- 
tions more  advanced  than  themselves.  Hence  their  facility  in 
acquiring  all  the  languages,  and  the  remarkable  degree  of  polish 
which  stamps  all  the  Russian  society,  although  in  many  respects 
the  mass  of  the  nation  are  still  plunged  in  the  depths  of  profound 
ignorance.  They  are  moreover  gay,  careless,  fond  of  mirth, 
dancing,  and  music,  and  great  lovers  of  brandy.  They  are  said 
to  be  servile  and  cringing  to  their  superiors,  haughty,  greedy, 
rapacious,  and  pitiless  towards  their  inferiors.  They  are  by  na- 
ture religiously  disposed,  and  are  very  much  attached  to  the 
Greek  church ;  but  their  faith  exerts  little  influence  over  their 
life,  and  their  ceremonies,  as  well  as  their  superstitions,  are  nu- 
merous. The  clergy  is,  however,  invested  Avith  little  power ;  the 
nobles  possess  more :  the  nobility  is  divided  into  14  grades.  The 
burghership  is  almost  null,  and  exists  only  in  the  cities.     The 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE.  333 

greater  part  of  the  peasants  are  serfs,  that  is,  slaves  of  the  nobili- 
ty, compelled  to  labor  for  the  benefit  of  the  nobles,  or  at  least 
deprived  of  the  right  of  quitting,  without  their  permission,  the 
lands  to  which  they  are  forever  bound,  unless  manumitted. 

Northern  Russia  is  composed  of  two  very  dissimilar  plains  — 
the  plains  of  the  Baltic,  the  soil  of  which  is  suitable  for  grain, 
rich  in  pastures,  and  clothed  with  vast  forests  of  birches,  firs,  and 
especially  those  magnificent  pines  of  Riga,  or  of  the  north,  which 
we  have  already  mentioned,  and  which  are  so  much  sought  for 
the  masting  of  ships ;  and  the  Boreal  plain,  extending  towards 
the  White  Sea,  of  a  wild  aspect,  and  whose  cold  and  damp  soil 
is  sometimes  covered  with  vast  forests,  sometimes  with  lakes, 
marshes,  or  tondras,  similar  to  those  of  Siberia,  intermingled  with 
pastures  and  fields,  where  barley  and  flax  are  almost  exclusively 
cultivated. 

Russia,  principally  in  the  Baltic  provinces,  produces  enormous 
quantities  of  hemp  and  flax,  of  which  ropes  are  manufactured,  and 
cloth  for  sails  and  other  purposes,  constituting  almost  the  sole 
occupation  of  the  cold  regions  bordering  on  the  White  Sea. 
Russia,  it  is  said,  annually  exports  to  the  west  a  vast  amount  of 
hemp  and  flax,  woven  or  in  bulk. 

The  population  is  composed  of  Russians  and  many  other  na- 
tions, over  whom  they  have  obtained  sway  by  successive  con- 
quests ;  thus,  on  the  borders  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  various  Mon- 
golian tribes,  such  as  the  Samoieds,  who  raise  reindeer,  and  are 
half  heathen  ;  protestant  and  formerly  Swedish  populations  on 
the  borders  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  such  as  the  Finns,  of  Finland,  and 
the  Laplanders,  all  very  ancient  and  differently  celebrated. 

Poland,  a  truly  flat  country,  without  fixed  boundaries  or  moun- 
tainous regions,  is  situated  west  of  Central  Russia,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  the  Marsh  of  Pripets,  twice  as  extensive  as 
Switzerland,  and  whence  issue  many  important  rivers.  Its  cli- 
mate is  cold  and  damp,  its  winds  violent  and  rainy.  Poland  was 
for  a  time  the  granary  of  Europe,  and  it  still  exports  much  wheat 
to  the  west,  through  the  Baltic.  The  soil,  for  the  most  part  sandy 
or  marshy,  is  more  favorable  to  pasturage  than  to  agriculture. 

Among  the  remarkable  animals  of  these  countries  are  found, 
towards  the  north-east,  in  Lithuania,  the  last  remnants  of  the  wild 


334 


THE  GEOGRAPHY   OP  NATURE. 


oxen,  called  urus,  or  aurochs,  which  were  formerly  found  in  all 
the  large  forests  of  Western  Europe ;  they  are  distinguished  for 
their   enormous   horns,  thick  mane,  long  beard,  and  for  their 


Wild  Ox. 


hump  covered  with  hair.  A  little  insect,  from  which  the  inhabit- 
ants of  these  regions  derived  a  considerable  revenue  before  the 
importation  of  the  cochineal  from  America,  is  the  kermes  of  the 
north,  or  cochineal  of  Poland — an  insect  which  lives  under  ground 
on  the  roots  of  certain  plants,  and  yields  a  color  almost  as  beauti- 
ful, but  a  little  darker  than  the  cochineal.  In  Poland  and  Russia 
it  is  still  employed  for  dyeing  various  materials.  The  enormous 
quantity  of  bees  that  swarm  in  this  country  are  also  worthy  of 
mention,  which  furnish,  as  in  Russia,  much  honey  and  wax. 

Population,  —  The  Poles  are  large,  strong,  and  vigorous, 
vivacious,  elegant  in  their  manners,  and  of  a  fervent  courage, 
which  has  obtained  for  them  the  appellation  of  the  Northern 
Frenchmen.  They  are  almost  all  Catholics ;  but  their  violent 
persecutions  of  the  Greek  or  Protestant  Christians,  the  tyranny  of 
the  Polish  nobles  towards  their  serfs,  and  their  own  anarchical 
instincts,  have  brought  them  under  the  yoke  of  their  neighbors, 
and  especially  under  that  of  the  Russians. 

Germanic  Plain.  ^—  The  plains  of  Germany  extend  west 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE.  335 

of  Poland,  between  the  Carpathians,  the  Erz-Gebirge,  and  other 
small  and  more  westerly  chains,  on  one  side,  and  the  Baltic  and 
the  North  Sea  on  the  other. 

Aspect.  —  These  plains  are  essentially  sandy,  dotted  with  small 
lakes  in  the  eastern  part,  (Prussia,)  intermingled  with  heaths  and 
turf  pits  in  the  west,  (Hanover  and  Westphalia ;)  notwithstanding 
which  there  are  in  these  different  countries  very  fertile  places  of 
flourishing  aspect. 

The  climate  is  temperate,  but  harsh ;  no  mountain  sheltering 
Lower  Germany  from  the  icy  winds  of  Siberia,  which  sweep 
unimpeded  across  the  vast  plains  of  Russia  and  Poland. 

The  vegetation  is  not  generally  rich,  except  in  certain  places 
favored  with  a  particularly  fertile  soil.  The  principal  produc- 
tions are  rye,  wheat,  barley,  oats ;  a  tolerable  abundance  of 
fruits,  but  no  wines ;  many  hops  ;  very  fine  legumes  ;  enormous 
cabbages,  which,  hashed  fine  and  properly  salted,  constitute, 
under  the  name  of  sotir-krout,  a  very  wholesome  and  highly 
appreciated  dish.  Beet  roots  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
sugar,  and  it  was  indeed  in  the  centre  of  Lower  Germany,  at 
Brandenburg,  that  this  manufacture  originated. 

The  animals  present  no  uncommon  characteristics  ;  the  horses 
of  Hanover,  and  those  of  Mecklenburg,  (south  of  Jutland,)  are 
much  esteemed ;  geese  abound  both  in  the  east  and  west ;  the 
small  lakes  are  fruitful  in  fish  ;  the  forests  are  well  stocked  with 
game,  carefully  guarded  by  the  nobles  ;  bees  are  reared  in  Han- 
over, and  silk  worms  in  Brandenburg.  The  cattle  are  quite 
numerous ;  the  sheep  of  Germany  yield  celebrated  wool,  and  the 
Westphalia  hams  have  a  universal  reputation. 

The  population  are  remarkable  for  their  air  of  health,  their 
tall  stature,  blue  eyes,  and  light  hair.  The  Germans  are 
heavily  moulded,  and  awkward  in  their  manners;  they  love 
their  ease,  their  pipe,  and  the  fireside ;  they  are  characterized 
by  too  great  susceptibility,  but  they  are  very  amiable,  honest, 
patient,  constant  in  their  affections,  serene,  and  serious.  They 
are  fond  of  quiet  and  repose,  and  their  life  is  preeminently  one 
of  thought  and  sentiment ;  they  are  naturally  visionaries,  philos- 
ophers, or  artists.  Nowhere  is  reading  so  general,  and  nowhere 
is  education  more  solid  or  more  widely  diffused  through  all  classes 


336  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

of  society.  Germany  produces  an  immense  number  of  writers 
and  distinguished  scholars.  The  Germans  are  naturally  a  reli- 
gious people,  whose  deep  faith  attaches  little  importance  to  cere- 
monies and  external  forms  :  this  faith  dwells  in  the  heart  rather 
than  in  the  head  and  on  the  lips  ;  but  it  is  not  sufficiently  active, 
and  often  expends  itself  in  vague  reveries.  Almost  all  Lower 
Germany  is  Protestant ;  but  there  are  a  considerable  number  of 
Catholics  at  the  west,  especially  in  Westphalia. 

Plains  of  Holland  and  Belgium.  —  West  of  Lower  Ger- 
many lie  the  damp  plains  of  Belgium  and  Holland. 

Their  aspect  is  generally  very  monotonous ;  they,  however, 
vary  perceptibly,  according  to  their  greater  or  less  distance  from 
the  sea.  At  the  south  of  Belgium  the  plain  is  somewhat  broken 
by  the  Ardennes  and  other  mountains  connecting  with  the  Vosges. 
This  is  a  fertile  and  well  cultivated  country.  Farther  north  are 
turfy  marshes,  alternating  with  sandy  wastes  covered  with  heath, 
but  which,  within  a  few  years,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
convert  to  agricultural  purposes,  by  the  establishment  of  pauper 
colonies,  and  canals  for  irrigation.  Farther  at  the  north-west  are 
found  the  polders,  very  fertile  lands,  reclaimed  from  the  waters 
of  the  ocean.  The  soil  of  the  polders  is  first  formed  of  a  mixture 
of  vegetable  matter  and  slime,  washed  up  by  the  rivers,  and 
which  the  reflux  forces  the  latter  to  deposit  at  their  mouths ;  the 
microscopic  animalcula  or  infusoria,  (see  Bohemia,)  which  are 
organized  to  live  in  the  sea,  die  by  myriads  as  soon  as  the  fresh 
water  from  the  rivers  becomes  blended  with  the  salt  water,  form- 
ing by  their  shells,  which  mingle  with  the  mud,  excellent  allu- 
vial soils. 

In  order  to  redeem  these  precious  soils  from  the  sea,  it  is  first 
requisite  that  at  low  tide  the  waves,  violently  driven  by  the  west 
winds,  should  have  accumulated,  at  the  point  where  they  cease, 
great  sand  banks,  which,  gradually  rising,  and  augmented  by  the 
labor  of  men,  become  downs.  These  are  fortified  by  enormous 
wooden  joists,  and  on  the  side  towards  the  sea  with  walls  com- 
posed of  huge  masses  of  rock  obtained  from  Norway.  The  down 
is  thus  transformed  into  a  dike,  bordered  or  surmounted  by  a  road, 
and  papable  of  resisting  the  waves  which  beat  against  it  at  high 
tide.     When  it  is  once  completed,  and  bound  to  the  main  land  by 


THE   CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  337 

its  two  extremities,  it  is  then  only  necessary  to  expel  from  the 
space  thus  enclosed  the  salt  water  which  yet  remains  there ;  and 
for  this  purpose  most  of  the  windmills  are  employed,  which  are 
to  be  seen  on  all  sides  in  these  countries,  and  the  number  of 
which  is  estimated  at  about  9000.  By  means  of  pumps  set  in 
motion  by  these  mills,  multitudes  of  low  and  marshy  soils  in  the 
interior  have  been  drained,  from  which  turf  was  formerly  pro- 
cured, and  which,  surrounded  by  dikes  and  ditches,  are  now  de- 
voted to  agriculture.  As  most  of  these  polders  are  much  below 
the  level  of  the  sea,  the  action  of  the  windmills  is  constantly  ne- 
cessary, to  prevent  the  infiltration  of  the  neighboring  waters  into 
the  low  lands,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  dikes  are  constantly 
required  to  arrest  the  salt  water  in  its  efforts  to  submerge  entire 
provinces,  which  at  high  tide  are  much  below  the  level  of  the 
ocean.  Thus,  if  one  of  these  costly  and  useful  dikes  becomes 
ruptured,  the  terrible  disasters  caused  by  the  sudden  invasion  of 
such  an  enormous  body  of  water  may  readily  be  conceived. 
Nearly  200  great  inundations  have  occurred  in  Holland  since  the 
Christian  era ;  instances  are  alleged  in  which  more  than  100,000 
persons  have  been  ingulfed ;  one  of  the  most  terrible  took  place 
in  1825.  This  vast  number  of  marshes,  dikes,  and  canals,  cov- 
ered with  ships,  which  seem  to  move  in  the  midst  of  windmills 
and  avenues  of  trees  of  the  richest  verdure,  impart  to  the  greater 
part  of  Holland  an  aspect  of  an  extremely  unique  and  original 
character,  heightened  by  the  presence  of  numerous  charming 
country  residences,  towns,  and  villages  of  painted  houses,  washed 
externally  from  top  to  bottom  every  week,  and  all  of  unparalleled 
neatness. 

The  climate  is  damp  and  cloudy,  but  not  very  cold ;  however, 
in  winter  the  canals  and  meadows  are  covered  with  ice  and 
skaters. 

Holland  completely  lacks  minerals,  and  turf  is  almost  the  only 
combustible.  Belgium,  on  the  contrary,  is  the  richest  country  of 
the  continent  in  pit  coal,  and  exports  considerable  quantities, 
especially  into  France ;  much  zinc  and  a  little  iron  are  also 
found. 

The  vegetation  is  particularly  rich  and  beautiful  in  the  polders 
and  other  soils,  redeemed  from  the  waters.  There  may  be  seen 
29 


338  THE  GEOaRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

superb  meadows,  of  a  verdure  which  is  nowhere  else  encoun- 
tered, and  where  great  numbers  of  cattle  are  reared.  Belgium 
and  Holland  are  tolerably  productive  in  cereals,  tobacco,  madder, 
and  excellent  vegetables  ;  but  the  principal  wealth  of  these  coun- 
tries is  flax^  which,  in  Flanders  especially,  is  of  such  fineness  that 
two  pounds  of  thread  of  the  first  quality  have  sold  for  as  much 
as  600  dollars.  Holland  is  renowned  for  the  skill  of  its  florists, 
as  also  for  the  beauty  of  its  hyacinths  and  tulips  which  in  the  last 
century  were  the  object  of  a  perfect  mania,  and  sold  at  fabulous 
prices. 

The  animals  of  these  plains  present  nothing  extraordinary. 
Holland  raises,  in  its  meadows,  fine  horned  cattle,  by  means  of 
which  it  supplies  England  and  the  countries  of  the  north  with 
butter  and  cheese.  The  horses  of  Flanders  are  famed  for  their 
strength  and  vigor ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  those  of  Fries- 
land,  in  the  north  of  Holland.  The  marshes  of  these  countries 
are  the  favorite  abode  o£  storks  and  herons — large  birds,  remark- 


Stork. 

able  for  their  long  legs  and  pointed  bills,  and  which,  accustomed 
to  live  on  the  borders  of  the  water,  devour  many  fish,  frogs,  and 
reptiles.  The  stork  is  an  almost  universal  object  of  public  grati- 
tude, on  account  of  the  great  number  of  serpents  which  it  destroys. 
Its  tenderness  for  its  young  is  also  much  commended.  Holland, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  perpetually  endangered  by  the  incessant 
attacks  made  by  the  taret  upon  its  dikes  and  vessels.  The  taret 
is  a  mollusk,  a  species  of  whitish  worm,  sometimes  a  foot  in 
length,  whose  head  is  provided  with  two  valves,  or  shells,  of  the 
size  of  the  two  halves  of  a  hazle  nut.  Its  mouth,  furnished  with 
m.  incredible  oumber  pf  small  teeth,  in  the  form  of  a  saw,  can 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  83^ 

in  a  few  montlis  completely  perforate  planks  and  joists  of  oak  or 
fir.  Thus  ships  have  been  known  to  part  in  open  sea,  beneath 
the  feet  of  the  sailors,  whom  nothing  had  forewarned  of  the  dan- 
ger, and  the  piles  of  the  dikes  give  way  almost  without  strain. 
In  order  to  prevent  the  ravages  of  these  dangerous  animals,  ves- 
sels are  sheathed  with  copper. 


Taret. 

The  population  varies  much  in  the  different  countries,  which 
we  have  condensed  under  one  head.  The  Dutch  have  simple, 
impassive  manners,  and  a  phlegmatic  temperament ;  but  on  the 
other  hand  they  are  active,  industrious,  persevering,  reflective, 
and  frugal,  besides  being  courageous,  of  great  uprightness,  and 
of  remarkable  neatness.  Their  schools,  universities,  and  other 
scientific  institutions  have  always  been  celebrated,  and  they  are 
one  of  the  best  educated  nations  in  Europe.  They  are  generally 
Protestants. 

The  Belgians,  who  are  almost  all  Catholics,  have  not  so  marked 
a  character.  They  are  neither  as  well  informed,  as  wealthy,  nor 
as  good  agriculturists ;  among  them,  however,  manufactures  are 
far  more  flourishing,  especially  in  Flanders,  celebrated  for  its 
linen ;  but  the  eye  every  where  encounters  throngs  of  beggars. 
Belgium  is  one  of  the  most  densely  peopled  countries  of  the  Eu- 
ropean continent. 

Plains  of  France.  —  The  plains  of  France,  situated  west 
of  the  Vosges,  the  Cote  d'Or,  and  the  Cevennes,  are  naturally 
divided  into  three  parts :  1.  Northern  France,  or  borders  of  the 
British  Channel ;  2  and  3.  The  western  plains,  which  the  moun- 
tains of  Auvergne  and  Limousin  divide  into  two  parts  —  the 
plains  of  the  Loire  and  those  of  the  Garonne. 

Northern  France,  generally  of  a  favorable  aspect,  and  very 
well  cultivated,  partakes  somewhat  of  the  damp  climate  of  Bel- 


340  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

gium.  The  minerals  are  pit  coal,  a  little  turf,  and  iron.  The 
vegetation  is  almost  every  where  rich  and  abundant,  especially  at 
the  west,  in  Normandy,  whose  magnificent  pastures  are  univer- 
sally renowned.  The  vine,  which  does  not  generally  succeed,  is 
replaced  by  cider,  the  fermented  juice  of  apples  or  pears,  except 
towards  the  south-east,  whence  ai'e  procured  the  champagne 
wines,  celebrated  throughout  the  world.  These  plains  abound  in 
wheat  and  cereals  of  all  kinds,  potatoes,  flax,  hemp,  &c. ;  the 
beet  root  is  much  cultivated  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar ;  the 
poppy,  from  whose  seed  is  extracted  a  much  esteemed  oil ;  rape 
seed,  which  serves  a  similar  purpose  ;  hops,  tobacco,  &c.  Superb 
cattle  are  raised  in  the  fine  pastures  of  Normandy,  and  elsewhere ; 
the  Norman  horses  are  also  of  some  repute. 

The  plains  of  the  Loire,  or  of  the  centre,  differ  essentially  in 
aspect,  according  to  their  situation.  They  are  generally  very 
beautiful  on  the  borders  of  the  river,  especially  in  Touraine, 
which  has  been  entitled  the  garden  of  Finance  ;  elsewhere,  on  the 
contrary,  the  country  is  covered  with  marshes  and  small  marshy 
lakes,  of  a  gloomy  appearance,  particularly  in  the  south-westerly 
portion,  and  more  especially  in  the  arid  country  called  Sologne ; 
in  the  provinces  adjacent  to  Bretagne,  (Maine  and  Anjou,)  the 
soil  is  partly  covered  with  vast  heaths,  or  intersected  by  multi- 
tudes of  quickset  hedges. 

The  climate  is  generally  mild,  but  insalubrious,  in  those  coun- 
tries which  abound  in  small  ponds  of  stagnant  water. 

The  minerals  are  fire  stones  and  lithograph  stones,  in  the 
environs  of  Sologne,  vast  slate  quarries  in  Anjou,  and  mines  of 
iron  and  pit  coal,  which  are  not  very  productive,  in  various  places. 

The  vegetation  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  which 
is  generally  fertile.  The  prunes  of  Tours  are  justly  famed,  as 
also  the  dried  apples  of  the  environs,  the  wheat  of  the  plains  of 
Beauce,  at  the  north-east,  the  saffron  of  Catinais,  still  farther 
east,  the  flax  and  linen  cloth  of  Maine,  and  the  rich  pastures  of 
Vendee  at  the  south-west,  near  the  sea. 

Among  the  animals  may  be  mentioned  the  fine  oxen,  which 
are  raised  in  Vendee  ;  the  mules  which  Poitou,  east  of  Vendee, 
furnishes  for  the  use  of  France  and  for  a  part  of  Spain ;  and  the 
sheep  of  Berry,  east  of  Poitou.     Maine  prides  itself  upon  its 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUEOPE*  341 

poultry,  and  especially  upon  its  fat  pullets :  at  no  gi-eat  distance, 
Perchc  produces  strong  horses,  which  enjoy  a  certain  reputation. 

The  Plains  of  the  Garonne  present,  generally,  a  flourishing  as- 
pect, except  towards  the  borders  of  the  sea  at  the  south-west,  where 
are  found  immense  sandy  or  marshy  heaths,  bordered  with  downs 
of  sand,  which  the  wind  formerly  transported  even  into  the  culti- 
vated lands.  These  invasions  of  sand  have  more  recently  been 
arrested  by  plantations  of  maritime  pines,  whose  products  in 
wood,  turpentine,  pitch,  and  tar  have  attached  a  certain  value  to 
lands  formerly  almost  deserted,  or  traversed  only  by  a  few  poor 
shepherds  mounted  on  long  stilts.  The  north-western  coasts,  on 
the  contrary,  are  low  and  damp,  and  covered  with  salt  marshes, 
where  the  best  salt  in  France  is  obtained  by  evaporation. 

The  vegetation^  almost  every  where  rich  and  beautiful,  furnishes 
various  products,  the  principal  of  which  are  wines  and  renowned 
brandy.  The  Bourdeaux  wines^  in  the  most  western  portion,  are 
celebrated  throughout  the  world.  The  plums  of  Agen,  towards 
the  centre  of  these  plains,  and  the  truffles  of  Perigord,  at  the 
north-west,  are  of  high  repute.  The  truffles  are  subterranean 
mushrooms,  which,  in  autumn,  when  they  are  ripe,  have  a  black 
skin  resembling  shagreen,  and  whose  brown,  marbled,  and  very 
odoriferous  flesh  constitutes  an  extremely  delicate  dish.  They 
thrive  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  oak  woods,  and  their 
presence  is  detected  by  the  odor  which  they  exhale.  Fre- 
quently, for  discovering  and  uprooting  them,  recourse  is  had  to 
hogs,  which  are  very  fond  of  them. 

The  animals  furnish  nothing  remarkable. 

The  plain  of  the  Saone  and  the  Rhone,  which  is  situated 
between  the  Jura  and  the  Alps  on  one  side,  the  mountains  of  the 
Vosges,  the  Cote  d'Or  and  the  Cevennes  on  the  other,  presents 
very  diversified  aspects.  Rich  and  fertile  on  the  borders  of  the 
Saone,  it  is  marshy  and  thickly  studded  with  ponds  in  the  Bresse,  a 
species  of  peninsula  between  the  Saone  and  the  Rhone ;  and  where- 
as it  is  beautiful  and  fertile  along  the  Rhone,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
sea  it  is  sterile  and  partly  covered  with  ponds  and  salt  marshes. 

The  climate  is  mild  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Saone,  un- 
healthy in  the  Bresse,  and  dry  and  hot  near  the  sea. 

The  vegetation  is  generally  quite  luxuriant.  This  plain  is  noted 
29* 


342  THE  GEOaRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

for  its  rich  vineyards,  whose  products,  known  under  the  names  of 
Burgundy  and  Rhone  wines,  are  of  great  repute.  The  lower 
portion  of  the  valley  of  the  Rhone  produces  many  vegetables 
of  the  warm  chmes — olives,  figs,  almonds,  mulberries,  melons, 
especially  watermelons,  and  a  very  great  quantity  of  madder, 
whose  root  yields  a  red  dye,  much  in  use  at  the  present  time. 

The  animals,  which  are  far  less  numerous  than  in  the  north 
of  France,  deserve  little  mention.  Near  the  sea,  the  rocky  and 
sterile  plains  of  La  Crau  are  the  winter  resort  of  flocks  of  wan- 
dering sheep,  which  in  summer  ascend  to  the  high  pastures  of 
the  French  Alps  ;  the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone  contain 
large  troops  of  almost  wild  horses.  The  Bresse  furnishes  con- 
siderable numbers  of  turkeys  and  fat  pullets,  and  its  ponds  abound 
in  fish. 

Plain  of  the  Rhine.  —  This  plain,  situated  between  the 
Black  Forest,  the  Vosges,  and  the  northern  portion  of  the  Jura, 
is  almost  universally  a  country  of  the  richest  and  most  fertile 
aspect.  It  might  be  termed  the  orchard  of  Germany ;  and  in 
truth,  in  many  places,  it  may  be  said  to  represent  vast  forests  of 
fruit  trees,  whose  products,  carefully  dried,  are  largely  consumed 
by  all  the  inhabitants,  and  exported  to  a  distance.  This  country, 
rich  in  cereals,  legumes,  flax,  hemp,  &c.,  produces  also  famous 
wines,  known  under  the  name  of  Rhine  wines.  It  is,  moreover, 
celebrated  for  its  mineral  springs,  which  attract  many  bathers, 
and  whose  waters  are  despatched  to  a  distance  every  year,  by 
millions  of  bottles.  This  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  and  smil- 
ing countries  among  the  plains  of  Europe. 

Plain  of  Hungary.  —  This  vast  country,  situated  between 
the  last  link  of  the  Alps  at  the  south-west,  and  the  Carpathian 
Mountains  at  the  north-east,  is  somewhat  diversified  and  inter- 
sected with  hills,  forests,  or  marshes  in  the  western  part ;  but 
the  eastern  portion,  Hungary  proper,  exhibits  a  most  original 
and  striking  aspect.  The  traveller,  penetrating  into  the  region 
which  extends  from  the  Danube  to  Transylvania,  might  fancy 
himself  transported  into  another  continent.  He  would  perceive 
only  illimitable  plains,  destitute  of  roads,  trees,  or  houses,  smooth 
as  the  steppes  of  Asia,  or  as  the  desert,  and  sometimes  even 
affording  the  singular  spectaple  of  the  mirage.     On  the  banks  of 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE.  343 

the  Danube  and  other  rivers,  impracticable  marshes,  whose  entire 
surface  has  been  estimated  at  300  square  leagues,  forbid  the  cul- 
tivation of  whole  districts,  and  fill  the  air  with  pestilential  exha- 
lations. Elsewhere  these  sandy  plains  are  covered  only  with 
heath,  or  meagre  grass,  and  even  in  many  places,  especially 
towards  the  south,  may  be  encountered  actual  downs  of  moving 
sands.  Although  well  peopled,  the  country  seems  entirely  de- 
serted. Hungary  having  been  exposed  for  centuries  to  the 
devastating  incursions  of  the  Turks,  the  cultivators  have  acquired 
the  habit  of  collecting  in  villages  to  an  extent  unequalled  in 
Europe,  insomuch  that  30  of  them  are  computed  to  contain  each 
from  10,000  to  30,000  inhabitants.  The  peasants  are  obliged  to 
travel  great  distances  during  the  week  for  the  purpose  of  culti- 
vating their  fields,  returning  to  spend  the  Sabbath  in  the  town  ; 
simple  huts  shelter  them  during  the  term  of  their  labors ;  for  the 
remainder  of  the  year  the  fields  are  actually  abandoned,  (except 
by  the  shepherds,)  and  present  the  aspect  of  a  desert. 

The  climate  is  one  of  extremes,  like  that  of  the  steppes  of 
Asia,  very  hot  in  summer,  and  of  a  piercing  cold  in  winter,  so 
that  the  homed  cattle,  which  remain  the  whole  year  in  the  open 
air,  perish  in  great  numbers  during  the  severe  winters.  In  sum- 
mer the  air  is  scorching  during  the  day,  and  damp  and  cold  at 
night.  The  climate  is,  however,  scarcely  unhealthy,  except  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  marshes. 

The  minerals,  gold,  silver,  copper,  salt,  opals,  &c.,  are  among 
the  treasures  of  Hungary ;  but  sufficient  has  been  said  concern- 
ing them  in  connection  with  the  Carpathian  Mountains. 

Vegetation. — A  rich  black  mould,  containing  not  a  single 
stone,  composes  the  soil  of  the  northern  portion  of  these  plains, 
and  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  wheat.  This  wheat 
is  of  superior  quality,  and  Hungary  would  be  enabled  to  furnish 
considerable  quantities  if  it  were  not  for  the  difficulty  of  thresh- 
ing, which  is  always  performed  by  horses  or  oxen,  and  before  the 
accomplishment  of  which,  the  sheaves  are  often  overtaken  and 
damaged  by  the  hurricanes.  The  Hungarian  peasant  seems  to 
have  brought  with  him  from  the  steppes  of  Asia  the  hereditary 
antipathy  of  the  Orientals  for  trees  ;  thus  this  great  plain  is 
generally  deficient  in  wood,  the  want  of  which  for  fuel  is  supplied 


k 


844  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

by  turf,  reeds,  straw,  and  other  combustibles  of  this  nature.  In 
the  western  part,  the  Forest  of  Bakonj  is  stocked  with  oaks  of  the 
greatest  beauty ;  but  it  is  decried  on  account  of  the  wild  hogs  by 
which  it  is  tenanted.  Among  the  cultivated  vegetables  should 
be  mentioned  excellent  tobacco,  which  ranks  among  the  best  in 
Europe  ;  hemp  reputed  for  its  solidity  ;  flax,  maize,  a  little  rice, 
and  even  cotton,  towards  the  south ;  justly  celebrated  wines,  of 
which  the  most  famed  are  those  of  Tokay  ;  there  are  four  quali- 
ties of  the  latter,  the  best  of  which,  the  essence,  is  the  wine  which 
flows  from  the  grapes  simply  heaped  on  the  press. 

Animals.  —  The  rearing  of  cattle  is  better  understood  than  the 
cultivation  of  the  earth.  The  horses  are  small  and  slender,  but 
active  and  vigorous.  The  horned  cattle  are  of  the  finest  stock, 
gray,  with  hair  and  horns  of  extraordinary  length;  they  are 
much  sought  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighboring  countries,  as 
likewise  the  hogs,  which  principally  inhabit  the  western  portion. 
The  Hungarian  sheep  is  distinguished  for  its  great  size  and  its 
spiral-shaped  horns  ;  its  wool  was  naturally  short  and  coarse,  but 
since  the  introduction  of  the  merinoes,  the  race  of  sheep  has  im- 
proved so  rapidly  that  the  highest  profits  of  the  field  owner  pro- 
ceed from  the  sale  of  his  wool.  Buffaloes  are  raised  in  the 
marshy  portions  of  the  south ;  a  great  quantity  of  leeches  are  also 
obtained  there ;  silk  worms  have  not  succeeded,  but  the  bees 
furnish  honey  and  wax,  which  is  exported  in  large  quantities. 
Game  is  very  abundant. 

The  population  is  composed  principally  of  Hungarians,  or 
Magyars,  of  Asiatic  origin,  large  and  robust,  with  hard  but  ex- 
pressive features,  energetic  and  valorous,  passionately  fond  of 
glory  and  of  their  nationality.  They  are  renowned  for  their 
bravery ;  they,  however,  prefer  the  peaceable  life  of  the  agricul- 
turist and  shepherd  to  war,  manufactures,  or  commerce.  They 
are  divided  into  nobles  and  serfs.  The  nobles  are  subdivided 
into  magnates,  or  lesser  nobles,  who  possess  a  third  of  the  land, 
and  into  nobles  of  a  still  inferior  rank,  the  greater  part  of  whom 
are  reduced  to  the  condition  of  artisans  or  peasants. 

The  Magyars  principally  occupy  the  Hungarian  plain,  properly 
so  called ;  but  as  seigneurial  proprietors  they  extend  even  to  the 
mountains,  where  they  have  never  been  able  to  obtain  absolute 


THE    CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  345 

dominion  over  the  energetic  populations  of  the  Slavonic  race  who 
are  established  there :  the  Groats  and  the  Slavonians,  warlike 
and  half  wild,  inhabit  the  south-west ;  the  Slovacks,  active,  enter- 
prising, and  qualified  for  all  trades,  the  north-west ;  and  the 
Rusniaks,  the  most  barbarous  of  all  these  people,  reside  at  the 
north-east.  The  Hungarians  are  partly  Protestants  and  partly 
Catholics,  the  Croats  and  Slavonians  are  Catholics,  the  Slovacks 
mostly  Protestants,  and  the  Rusniaks  of  the  Greek  religion. 

Plain  of  Wallachia.  —  The  plain  of  Wallachia,  or  Low- 
er Danube,  is  situated  between  the  southern  portion  of  the 
Carpathians  of  Transylvania,  the  northern  ramifications  of  the 
Balkan  Mountains,  and  the  sea.  The  length  of  the  mountains, 
forests,  cultivated  lands,  and  vineyards  impart  to  this  country  a 
diversified  aspect ;  lower,  high  grass,  concealing  shepherds  and 
cattle,  alternates  with  steppes  covered  with  rolling  stones ;  towards 
the  Danube  are  vast  marshes  bristling  with  rushes.  The  climate 
is  mild  and  very  salubrious  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Carpathians,  but 
the  forests  and  stagnant  waters  of  the  plains  diffuse  in  certain 
portions  a  dangerous  moisture.  The  rich  and  fertile  soil  is  capa- 
ble of  all  the  productions  of  temperate  climates,  but  is  generally 
poorly  cultivated ;  it  furnishes  light  wines,  esteemed  in  Russia, 
and  much  maize,  the  principal  food  of  the  inhabitants.  "Wallachia 
might  supply  Western  Europe  with  a  portion  of  the  wheat  which 
it  habitually  procures  from  the  south  of  Russia. 

The  animals  possess  few  striking  points ;  buffaloes  are  encoun- 
tered in  the  vicinity  of  the  Danube  ;  the  sheep  of  Wallachia,  with 
spiral  and  upright  horns,  yield  enormous  quantities  of  wool ;  in- 
numerable swarms  of  bees  produce  an  excellent  wax ;  one  species, 
among  others,  furnishes  the  green  wax  of  which  candles  are 
made,  which,  when  lighted,  exhale  a  most  agreeable  perfume. 

The  population  boast  of  being  descended  from  the  ancient 
Romans ;  the  Wallachians  distinguish  themselves  by  no  other 
name  than  that  of  Roumeni,  and  their  language  has  in  truth  some 
striking  points  of  resemblance  to  the  Latin.  Their  villages  are 
poor,  presenting  for  the  most  part  only  a  heap  of  cabins.  Among 
them  are  found  many  Jews,  and  especially  Zingares,  (those  no- 
madics  originally  from  India,  improperly  designated  in  other 
countries  by  the  name  of  Bohemians,)  always  roaming,  transport- 


346  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

ing  hither  and  thither  their  families  and  trifling  possessions  in 
wagons  drawn  by  buffaloes,  the  men  practising  the  trades  of 
wheelwrights  and  blacksmiths  on  week  days,  and  of  mountebanks 
on  Sundays,  whilst  the  women  tell  fortunes  with  cards,  and  at  the 
same  time  practise  swindling  wherever  they  can  elude  the  vigi- 
lance of  the  peasants. 

Besides  these  low  plains,  which  are  located  in  the  European 
continent,  properly  so  called,  there  exist  a  certain  number  of  others 
in  the  great  peninsulas.  Exclusive  of  the  plain  of  Sweden,  which 
constitutes  all  the  eastern  part  of  Scandinavia,  we  have  to  men- 
tion three  others  of  considerable  importance  in  the  peninsula  of 
the  Pyrenees,  and  in  Italy  —  Arragon,  Andalusia,  and  the  plains 
of  the  Po. 

Plain  of  Arragon.  —  This  plain,  situated  between  the 
Pyrenees  and  the  Iberian  Mountains,  exhibits,  generally,  an  ap- 
pearance of  little  prosperity,  except  on  the  borders  of  rivers, 
where  there  are  some  very  fertile  districts.  It  is,  however,  a  soil 
which  might  be  rendered  very  productive,  if  pains  were  taken  to 
irrigate  lands  which  are  now  consumed  by  drought ;  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  fields  are  stripped  of  trees,  and  left  fallow ; 
elsewhere  the  soil  is  impregnated  with  salt,  and  many  salados,  or 
salt  rivers,  are  met  with.  The  productions  are  wheat,  wine,  olive 
oil,  flax,  hemp,  and  fine  wools. 

But,  if  agriculture  is  neglected  in  Arragon,  properly  so  called,  it 
is  quite  otherwise  with  the  lower  portion  of  the  basin  of  the  Ebro, 
(Catalonia,)  where  the  country  is  mountainous  and  of  little  fertil- 
ity, but  where  irrigation  is  extensively  practised.  There  a  natu- 
rally stubborn  soil  has  been  converted,  through  the  indefatigable 
labors  of  the  Catalonians,  into  a  truly  productive  country,  inso- 
much that  it  is  indeed,  of  all  Spain,  the  portion  which  presents 
the  most  activity  and  industry.  All  kinds  of  grains,  olives,  many 
fruit  trees,  and  excellent  wines  are  there  cultivated ;  Catalonia 
produces  a  great  quantity  of  hazel  nuts  and  cork,  with  which  it 
supplies  almost  all  Northern  Europe.  A  curiosity  of  this  country 
is  the  famous  salt  mountain  of  Cordova,  500  feet  in  height,  and 
a  league  in  circumference,  almost  entirely  composed  of  salt,  which 
rain,  however,  does  not  dissolve.  Of  it  are  carved  crosses,  altars, 
figures  of  saints,  candlesticks,  &c.,  transparent  as  crystal,  and 
apparently  as  hard. 


THE  CWfTTNia^T  OP  EUROPE.  347 

Plain  of  Andalusia.  —  This  plain,  situated  between  the 
Sierra  Morena,  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  the  sea,  is  naturally  one 
of  the  richest  countries  in  the  world,  but  now  presents  a  most 
melancholy  spectacle  of  decay ;  some  districts  are  depopulated 
and  deserted,  and  others  incrusted  with  salt,  where  one  frequently 
encounters  salados,  or  lagoons,  which  during  the  heat  of  summer 
are  covered  with  a  solid  crust  of  white  crystal  salt. ..'  . 

The  climate  is  dry  and  very  hot,  and  Andalusi^  i^  moreover 
very  much  exposed  to  the  disastrous  effects  of  the  soiano. 

Although  agriculture  is  but  ill  understood,  and  neglected,  the 
vegetation  is  extremely  rich  and  exuberant  in  fertile  places,  so 
that  Andalusia  may  justly  be  termed  the  cellar  and  granary  of 
Spain.  It  produces,  indeed,  twice  as  much  wheat  as  it  requires 
for  home  consumption;  abundant  crops  of  barley  and  maize; 
famous  wines,  among  others  those  of  Xeres ;  forests  of  olive  trees, 
whose  fruits,  larger  than  are  found  elsewhere,  furnish  the  ordi- 
nary food  of  the  people ;  cotton,  sugar  cane,  mulberries,  and  large 
oranges :  the  cactus,  on  which  the  cochineal  is  reared,  grows 
wild  in  abundance  on  the  sides  of  the  roads  and  on  the  rocks,  and 
its  fruits  serve  as  food  for  the  poor. 

The  animals  are  numerous  and  of  superior  breed.  The  finest 
horses  in  Spain  are  raised  in  Andalusia ;  they  almost  equal  in 
fleetness  those  of  Arabia,  from  which  they  originated.  This 
province  is  one  of  the  winter  sojourns  of  the  merino  sheep ;  it 
produces  very  superior  oxen,  exquisite  honey,  and  a  great  abun- 
dance of  game. 

Plain  of  the  Po.  —  This  considerable  plain,  which  ex- 
tends from  the  Alps  to  the  Apennines  and  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
bears  the  name  of  Piedmont  at  the  west,  and  Lombardy  at  the 
east.  It  is  a  country  naturally  very  well  watered,  and  complete- 
ly threaded  with  canals,  dikes,  and  rivers,  which  in  certain  places 
render  the  country  quite  unhealthy.  The  soil  is  the  most  pro- 
ductive of  Europe ;  it  is  capable  of  yielding  three  crops  a  year, 
without  becoming  exhausted.  There  are  found  the  finest  mead- 
ows of  Italy,  and  the  fattest  cattle,  and  there  also  is  cultivated 
the  hard  species  of  wheat,  which  is  used  in  the  composition  of  the 
pastes  and  macaroni,  to  which  the  Itahans  are  so  partial.  The 
wheat  grows  between  the  rows  of  mulberry  trees,  which  partially 


348  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

cover  the  fields,  and  serve  to  nourish  an  enormous  quantity  of 
silk  worms,  while  vine  branches  suspend  their  festoons  from  one 
of  these  trees  to  the  other.  Immense  rice  plantations  occupy  the 
dampest  and  most  unhealthy  portions  of  this  rich  country. 

Sect.  6.  Lakes  of  Europe.  —  Europe  contains  a  great 
number  of  lakes,  very  unequally  distributed  over  its  surface, 
where  they  form  several  principal  groups. 

Lakes  of  the  Swiss  Plateau.  —  The  Swiss  Alps  include 
many  celebrated  lakes,  situated  at  the  point  where  their  prin- 
cipal valleys  open  upon  the  plateau.  These  lakes,  which  are 
peculiar  to  this  portion  of  the  chain,  constitute  one  of  the  princi- 
pal beauties  of  Switzerland,  to  which  they  render  material  ser- 
vices. The  rivers  and  torrents  there  become  tranquillized  and 
deposit  their  slime ;  when  the  snow  melts  and  the  high  valleys 
are  submerged,  the  lakes,  distributing  these  superabundant  waters 
over  a  large  surface,  preserve  the  lower  countries  from  sudden 
and  disastrous  inundations.  Thus  it  is  the  function  of  these  lakes 
to  calm,  clarify,  and  regulate  the  rivers. 

Lake  Leman,  or  Lake  of  Geneva,  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the 
lakes  of  Europe,  situated  at  the  south-west  of  the  Swiss  plateau, 
extends,  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  opposite  the  snowy  peaks  of 
Mont  Blanc,  and  one  of  the  most  charming  portions  of  the  Alps. 
By  turns  smiling,  picturesque,  or  grand,  its  happy  borders  every 
where  present  an  air  of  ease  and  prosperity  which  enchants  the 
traveller.  It  is  situated  about  1230  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea ;  its  length  is  45  miles,  its  breadth  from  1  to  9^  miles,  its 
greatest  depth  984  feet.  Its  transparent  and  deep  blue  waters 
are  subject  to  a  singular  and  inexplicable  phenomenon  called 
seiches,  consisting  of  a  sudden  rise  and  fall,  which  changes  its 
level  about  a  foot.  Navigation  on  this  lake  is  active,  and  at- 
tended with  little  danger.  Among  the  29  species  of  fish  which  it 
contains,  many  are  excellent ;  trout  have  been  caught  there  of 
40  pounds  weight.  Its  perch  and  its  umber,  fish  of  the  salmon 
species,  are  also  valued ;  but  the  most  abundant  fishery  is  that 
of  the  feras. 

Lake  Neufchatel,  north  of  the  preceding,  and  at  the  foot  of  the 
Jura,  is  much  larger  and  less  deep  than  Lake  Leman.  Its  navi- 
gation is  quite  active,  and  sometimes  dangerous,  on  account  of 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  349 

sudden  gusts  of  winds  proceeding  from  the  Jura.  It  abounds 
in  fish.  Its  borders,  although  not  remarkable  for  their  sublim- 
ity, are  generally  well  cultivated  and  covered  with  vineyards. 

The  small  lakes  of  Morat  and  Bienne,  which  communicate  with 
the  preceding,  may  serve  to  facilitate  the  transportation  of  mer- 
chandise ;  but  they  are  only  noted  for  the  historical  recollections 
which  they  awaken. 

Those  of  Brienz  and  Thun,  which  receive  all  the  waters  that 
flow  from  the  glaciers  and  magnificent  valleys  of  the  Bernese 
Oberland,  disclose  at  every  step  grand  and  enchanting  points  of 
view,  which  every  summer  attract  crowds  of  strangers  into  these 
countries.  These  lakes,  from  3  to  4  leagues  in  length,  and  less 
than  a  league  in  breadth,  are  very  deep  ;  that  of  Brienz  attains 
even  2400  feet  in  depth.  On  their  borders  magnificent  cascades 
delight  the  eye. 

The  Lahe  of  Lucerne,  or  of  the  Four  Cantons,  the  cradle  of 
Helvetic  liberty,  is  the  most  poetic  of  the  Swiss  lakes.  It  is  re- 
markable for  its  numerous  gulfs  and  indentations,  and  for  its 
varied  prospects ;  sometimes  graceful  and  placid,  sometimes 
wild,  grand,  and  sublime,  and  each  phase  recalling  glorious  or 
touching  reminiscences.  Encircled  by  high  and  steep  mountains, 
with  narrow  and  profound  gorges,  this  lake  is  exposed  to  sudden 
and  dangerous  gales  of  wind. 

.  Lake  Zurich,  of  little  breadth,  but  extremely  elongated,  is  one 
of  the  most  smiling  in  Switzerland.  Its  borders  are  covered  with 
numerous  rich,  beautiful,  and  thriving  villages,  and  admirably 
cultivated  fields.  At  a  certain  point  in  the  eastern  part,  where 
its  two  shores  approximate,  it  is  crossed  by  a  bridge  1800  feet 
long. 

Lahe  Wallenstadt,  east  of  the  preceding,  presents,  on  the  contra- 
ry, the  wildest  and  most  menacing  aspect.  Perpendicular  moun- 
tains overshadow  a  portion  of  its  borders  ;  its  tempests  are  some- 
times terrible,  and  the  condor  there  seems  to  have  established  its 
principal  quarters. 

Lake  Constance,  which  has  been  sumamed  the  Sea  of  SuaUa, 
is  situated  at  the  north-east  of  the  Swiss  plateau,  which  it  sepa- 
rates from  the  German  or  Bavarian  plateau.     It  is  of  nearly  the 
30 


350  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

same  extent  and  depth  as  Lake  Leman ;  but  its  smiling  and  fer- 
tile borders,  covered  with  vineyards,  and  very  well  populated, 
exhibit  nothing  grand  or  imposing.  It  forms  at  the  west  two 
deep  gulfs,  and  contains  many  small  islands ;  among  others,  one 
towards  the  east,  on  which  the  Bavarian  town  of  Lindau  (a  Ven- 
ice in  miniature)  is  built  on  piles. 

This  lake  gives  rise  to  quite  an  active  commerce.  Like  almost 
all  the  preceding,  it  is  furrowed  during  the  fine  season  by  steam- 
boats.    Its  fishery  is  abundant. 

Lakes  of  Italy.  —  At  the  base  of  the  southern  portion  of 
the  Swiss  Alps,  and  in  other  parts  also  of  the  peninsula  of  the 
Apennines,  exist  a  certain  number  of  celebrated  lakes. 

Lake  Maggiore,  at  the  foot  of  St.  Gothard,  is  a  vast  sheet 
of  azure  water,  incessantly  plied  by  multitudes  of  small  sail 
boats,  and  encompassed  by  the  most  beautiful  hills  in  the  world. 
This  lake,  14  leagues  in  length,  and  less  than  2  in  breadth,  is  of 
an  extraordinary  depth,  which  is  computed  at  2400  feet.  But 
the  most  curious  feature  which  it  presents  is  the  four  Borro- 
mean  Islands,  the  principal  of  which  forms  a  pyramidal  pile,  con- 
sisting of  ten  stories  of  teiTaces,  covered  with  magnificent  orange 
or  lemon  trees  with  enormous  fruits,  and  laurels,  some  trees  of 
which  attain  as  many  as  8  feet  in  circumference,  and  100  feet  in 
height.  These  terraces  are  every  where  ornamented  with  statues, 
in  very  bad  taste ;  but  here  and  there  may  be  seen  charming 
grottos  of  shells  opening  upon  the  lake. 

The  small  Lake  of  Lugano,  east  of  the  preceding,  into  which 
it  empties,  is  surrounded  by  smiUng  and  fertile  hills ;  it  is,  more- 
over, very  productive  of  fish,  and  furnishes  an  abundance  of 
delicate  trout. 

Lake  Gomo  forms,  still  farther  east,  a  basin  of  a  truly  enchant- 
ing aspect.  White  country  houses  every  where  rise  upon  its 
banks,  amid  clusters  of  oleanders,  olives,  and  especially  of  mul- 
berry trees,  which  give  rise  to  the  principal  manufacture  of  the 
country  —  that  of  silk. 

The  other  Italian  lakes  —  that  of  Garda  at  the  foot  of  the 
Alps,  those  of  Peroitse,  (anciently  Thrasymene,)  Bolsena,  and 
Fucino,  all  situated  at  the  west,  or  on  the  peaks  of  the  Apen- 
nines—  present  nothing  remarkable,  with  the  exception  of  the 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  351 

latter,  which  occupies  the  crater  of  an  ancient  volcano ;  it  is  sub- 
ject to  extraordinary  risings,  which  constantly  threaten  the  neigh- 
boring inhabitants. 

Lake  Gojnacchio,  situated  north-west  of  the  Adriatic,  with  the 
waters  of  which  it  communicates,  contains  a  great  number  of 
floating  islands  —  turfy  soils,  interwoven  with  weeds  and  roots, 
which,  having  been  undermined  by  the  waters,  and  detached 
from  the  shore,  continue  wandering  over  the  surface  of  the  lake ; 
many  fish,  and  especially  eels,  come  thither  from  the  sea  at  cer- 


Eel. 

tain  seasons,  as  if  designed  by  Providence  to  serve  as  food  for 
man.  These  fish,  which  somewhat  resemble  the  serpent,  are 
eaten  both  pickled  and  salted,  and  sustain  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Mediterranean  a  well-deserved  reputation. 

Lakes  of  Hungary.  —  At  the  foot  of  the  final  ramifica- 
tions of  the  Alps,  and  at  the  west  of  the  plain  of  Hungary,  are 
found  two  quite  remarkable  basins. 

Lake  Balaton,  22  leagues  in  length  and  6  in  breadth,  is,  strange 
to  say,  only  30  feet  in  depth.  Its  borders  are  delightful ;  and  a 
great  bathing  establishment  which  exists  in  the  neighborhood 
attracts  many  visitors  every  year.  This  is  the  only  lake  which 
nourishes  the  delicious  fagas,  (perca  lucio,)  whose  white  and 
tender  flesh  is  much  esteemed ;  it  usually  attains  4  feet  in  length. 

Lake  Neusiedl,  not  far  from  the  preceding,  is  much  smaller, 
and  of  less  depth. 

Lakes  of  Russia.  —  Lakes  abound  in  all  the  north-west 
of  Russia,  and  particularly  in  Finland,  a  species  of  peninsula 
between  the  Gulfs  of  Finland  and  Bothnia,  which  is  completely 
perforated  with  ponds  and  lakes. 

Lake  Ladoga  is  the  largest  basin  of  fresh  water  in  Europe, 


352  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

being  about  50  leagues  in  length  and  22  in  breadth.  In  winter 
it  is  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  ice,  which  does  not  melt  until 
very  late,  so  that  often  at  St.  Petersburg,  during  the  warmest 
and  most  beautiful  days  of  spring,  an  island  of  ice  from  Lake 
Ladoga  may  suddenly  be  seen  majestically  descending  amidst  the 
fleets  of  vessels  which  furrow  the  waters  of  the  Neva,  dragging 
with  it  the  fragments  of  a  peasant's  sledge,  or  the  carcass  of  a 
horse  which  had  perished  by  the  cold. 

Three  other  lakes  of  smaller  size  discharge  their  waters  into 
Lake  Ladoga ;  at  the  east.  Lake  Onega^  which  is  of  almost  equal 
extent ;  at  the  west,  Lake  Saima ;  and  at  the  south,  Lake  llmen. 
Others,  also,  which  are  but  little  known,  as  that  of  Bielo^  south- 
east of  Lake  Onega,  and  Lake  Peipus,  south  of  the  Gulf  of 
Finland. 

Lakes  of  Sweden.  —  As  in  the  Swiss  Alps,  the  lower 
portion  of  most  of  the  valleys  of  Scandinavia  (at  least  on  the 
eastern  side)  is  occupied  by  the  waters  of  lakes,  which  take  the 
place  of  the  fiords  of  the  Norwegian  coast. 

The  rivers  to  which  they  give  birth,  or  which  flow  into  them, 
form  multitudes  of  cataracts  or  falls,  some  of  which  are  very 
remarkable. 

Among  the  largest  of  these  lakes  should  be  mentioned  the 
Maelar,  which  communicates  with  the  Baltic,  and  whose  small, 
fresh,  and  green  islands,  and  shores  covered  with  gardens,  towns, 
and  villages,  present  during  the  summer  an  extremely  graceful 
and  smiling  spectacle.  On  an  island  of  this  lake,  and  on  the 
strait  which  connects  it  with  the  Baltic,  is  built  the  capital  of 
Sweden  —  Stockholm. 

West  of  the  preceding  is  Lake  Wener,  one  of  the  largest  in 
Europe.  This  lake  is  30  leagues  in  length  and  16  in  breadth. 
A  great  number  of  verdant  islands  arise  from  the  midst  of  its 
waves ;  and  on  its  banks,  intersected  by  deep  bays,  are  found 
many  towns  and  numerous  villages  and  hamlets,  whose  inhabit- 
ants are  greatly  indebted  to  the  beautiful  lake  which  borders 
them ;  for  they  plough  it  unceasingly  (except  in  winter)  with 
boats  laden  with  merchandise,  and  these  prosecute  an  abundant 
fishery  of  salmon  and  other  fish. 

Lake  Wetter,  east  of  the  preceding,  is  characterized  by  this 


THE   CONTINENT   OF    EUROPE.  853 

very  singular  and  inexplicable  phenomenon — that  it  often  expe- 
riences, in  the  finest  weather,  violent  agitations. 

Sect.  7.  Rivers  of  Europe.  —  Rivers  are,  in  the  lan- 
guage of  another,  moving  roads,  or  at  least  natural  canals,  which 
serve  to  place  the  interior  of  a  continent  in  communication  with 
the  coasts,  and,  by  means  of  the  sea,  with  the  most  distant  coun- 
tries. In  this  point  of  view,  navigable  rivers  are  a  precious 
advantage  to  every  country ;  and  by  no  continent  are  they  en- 
joyed to  such  a  degree  as  by  the  European. 

Rivers  which  flow  into  the  Arctic  Ocean. — The 
Petchora,  which  takes  its  rise  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  is  as  con- 
siderable a  body  of  water  as  the  largest  rivers  of  France ;  but 
as  it  traverses  the  most  deserted  plains  of  Russia,  marshes,  or  icy 
tondras,  it  has  scarcely  any  commercial  importance. 

The  Dwina,  (the  Double,)  which  is  frozen  every  year  during 
six  or  seven  months,  submerges  in  the  spring  a  great  extent  of 
country,  and  flows  into  the  White  vSea. 

Rivers  which  flow  into  the  Baltic.  —  Th^Neva,  which 
receives  the  waters  of  Lakes  Ladoga,  Onega,  Saima,  and  Ilmen, 
has  a  course  of  little  extent,  but  a  considerable  volume  of  water. 
Sometimes  the  west  winds  cause  the  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland 
and  those  of  the  river  to  reflow  in  such  a  manner  as  to  occasion 
disastrous  inundations  in  the  capital  of  Russia.  In  November, 
1824,  the  Neva  swept  away  330  houses,  and  ruined  more  than 
2000,  besides  causing  the  destruction  of  more  than  1500  persons. 

This  beautiful  and  broad  river  is  frozen  every  year  during 
six  months.  But  as  soon  as  the  icebergs  separate,  towards  the 
end  of  April,  opening  a  passage  for  boats,  cannons  fired  from  the 
fortress  announce  this  happy  event  to  all  the  inhabitants.  The 
commander  of  the  city,  in  full  uniform,  and  attended  by  all  his 
chief  officers,  then  repairs  to  the  palace  in  a  richly-decorated 
gondola,  bearing  a  magnificent  crystal  glass  filled  with  the  water 
of  the  Neva,  which  he  presents  to  the  emperor,  who  immediately 
drinks  to  the  prosperity  of  his  capital.  This  is  the  most  costly 
glass  of  water  which  is  drunk  on  the  surface  of  the  globe ;  for, 
according  to  an  ancient  usage,  the  emperor  returns  it  full  of  gold 
to  him  who  tenders  it. 

The  Duna,  (or  Western  Dwina,)  which  issues  from  a  small 
30* 


k 


354  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

lake,  and  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Kiga,  is  obstructed  by  rocks, 
which  greatly  impede  the  progress  of  the  flat  boats  with  which 
the  peasants  of  White  Russia  descend  but  never  ascend  the  river. 
This  circumstance  does  not,  however,  prevent  the  transportation 
of  the  beautiful  Riga  pines,  so  much  in  request  for  the  masting 
of  vessels. 

The  Niemen,  which  rises  in  vast  marshes  at  the  east  of  Poland, 
flows  into  the  Kurische  Haff,  a  species  of  liman,  or  lake  of  fresh 
water,  of  little  depth,  separated  from  the  sea  by  a  narrow  strip 
of  land,  which  answers  the  purpose  of  a  natural  dike.  Often,  at 
the  close  of  winter,  the  Niemen,  encumbered  at  its  mouth  by  ice, 
inundates  to  a  great  distance  the  meadows  which  border  its  banks, 
interrupting  all  communications. 

The  Vistula,  which  descends  from  the  Carpathians,  also  flows 
into  a  haff*,  like  the  Niemen,  (the  Frische  Haff.)  This  impor- 
tant river  conveys  to  the  Baltic  an  enormous  quantity  of  grains 
and  wood,  of  which  Dantzic  is  the  general  emporium. 

Between  the  two  haffs,  and  among  the  sands  of  the  sea  shore, 
the  amber  is  principally  obtained.  This  is  a  resinous  substance, 
of  a  magnificent  yellow  color,  disseminated  in  sandy  soils,  in 
lumps  of  greater  or  less  size,  and  in  the  interior  of  which  little 
insects  may  often  be  observed,  which  proves  that  this  substance 
was  originally  fluid.  Amber  is  used  for  manufacturing  various 
kinds  of  ornaments,  which  are  chiefly  valued  in  the  East  —  small 
vases,  heads  of  canes,  mouthpieces  for  pipes,  necklaces,  &c.  By 
friction,  this  substance  becomes  eminently  electric,  and  attracts 
very  light  bodies ;  it  is  also  from  its  primitive  name  (electron) 
that  that  of  electricity  is  derived. 

The  Oder,  which  rises  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Sude- 
tes,  and  also  flows  into  a  haff,  is  an  inconsiderable  river,  lacking 
in  summer  sufficient  water  for  the  requirements  of  navigation, 
and  which  is  continually  inundating,  undermining,  and  changing 
its  low  and  sandy  banks.  Its  principal  affluent  on  the  right  is 
the  Wariha. 

Rivers  op  the  North  Sea. — The  ^/^e,  a  large  and  beautiful 
river,  which  rises  among  the  Giant  Mountains,  receives  through 
the  Moldau  all  the  waters  of  Bohemia,  is  increased  by  those  of 
the  Havel,  (which  first  bears  the  name  of  Spree,)  its  principal 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  355 

affluent  on  the  right,  and  flows  into  the  North  Sea  through  a 
broad  mouth  near  Jutland.  This  river,  and  especially  its  afflu- 
ents, abound  in  fish.  Among  others  it  produces  the  common 
silure,  one  of  the  largest  of  fresh  water  fish,  sometimes  attaining 
100  pounds  in  weight.  As  it  is  heavy  in  its  movements,  and 
with  difficulty  seizes  its  prey  when  swimming,  it  usually  remains 
motionless,  hidden  beneath  the  slime,  displaying  above  the  mire 
the  wattles  which  surround  its  large  mouth,  and  which  resemble 
worms.  Enticed  by  these  appearances,  the  little  fish  approach 
this  deceitful  bait,  and  fall  into  the  outstretched  mouth  of  their 
formidable  enemy.  The  flesh  of  the  silure  is  white  and  fat,  but 
heavy,  and  less  esteemed  than  that  of  the  eel. 

The  Weser,  west  of  the  Elbe,  is  a  river  of  little  importance, 
whose  great  waters  annually  inundate  the  marshy  plain  which 
it  traverses,  whereas  in  summer  merchant  vessels  can  scarcely 
ascend  it  beyond  its  mouth. 

The  Rhine,  on  the  contrary,  which  rises  in  the  Swiss  Alps, 
east  of  St.  Gothard,  and  flows  into  the  sea  between  Belgium 
and  Holland,  is  the  first  river  in  Europe,  owing  to  the  importance 
of  the  communications  which  it  establishes  between  the  centre 
of  the  continent  and  the  most  commercial  and  industrial  countries 
in  the  world.  Its  navigation  is  never  impeded  by  the  want  of 
water;  for  whilst  the  summer  exhausts  most  of  the  rivers,  it 
causes  the  Rhine  to  swell,  by  dissolving  the  snow  and  ice  of  the 
Alps.  Nevertheless,  the  upper  part  of  its  course  is  sometimes 
obstructed  by  rocks ;  thus,  after  issuing  from  Lake  Constance, 
the  Rhine  forms,  near  Schaffhausen,  a  beautiful  fall  of  80  feet  in 
height,  and  of  the  most  imposing  aspect.  At  the  foot  of  this  cat- 
aract are  caught  many  salmon,  which  vainly  endeavor  to  sur- 
mount it.  Lower  down  is  found  the  carp  of  the  Rhine,  which  is 
especially  esteemed,  no  table  being  considered  well  served  with- 
out it.  The  scale  of  the  little  fish  known  by  the  name  of  ablet 
is  the  object  of  a  considerable  commerce ;  it  is  exported  into 
Saxony,  France,  and  Switzerland,  where  it  is  employed  in  im^ 
parting  to  the  glass  pearl  a  brilliancy  which  rivals  that  of  the 
true  pearl  of  the  East. 

The  Rhine  flows  into  the  sea  by  several  mouths.  Its  princi- 
pal affluents  on  the  right  are  the  Neckar  and  the  Main  ;  on  the 


856  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

left,  the  Aar,  which  receives  the  largest  part  of  the  rivers  and 
lakes  of  the  Swiss  plateau,  the  Moselle,  which  rises  in  the  Vosges, 


Carp  of  the  Rhine. 

and  the  Meuse,  which,  issuing  from  the  same  regions,  mingles  its 
waters  with  one  of  the  principal  branches  of  the  Rhine,  which 
might,  however,  be  considered  as  a  river  by  itself. 

The  Scheldt  is  an  inconsiderable  volume  of  water,  which  has, 
however,  acquired  a  certain  importance  by  facilitating  in  Bel- 
gium the  establishment  of  numerous  canals,  promoting  the  com- 
merce of  Flanders  by  opening  communications  with  very  distant 
countries. 

Rivers  of  the  English  Channel.  —  The  Somme,  a  river 
which  traverses  turfy  but  fertile  meadows,  is  only  rendered  navi- 
gable by  means  of  a  canal  lateral  to  the  Somme,  which  opens 
communications  of  inestimable  importance  to  a  very  industrial 
country. 

The  Seme  descends  from  the  mountains  of  Cote  d'Or,  describes 
a  course  remarkable  for  its  sinuosities,  and  flows  into  the  sea  by 
a  large  mouth.  Near  the  latter  may  be  observed  a  phenomenon 
known  under  the  name  of  water  bar,  and  which  is  occasioned  by 
the  circumstance  that  the  rising  tide  stems  the  waters  of  the  river, 
and  prevents  them  from  entering  the  sea.  The  most  important 
tributaries  of  the  Seine  are,  on  the  right,  the  Aube,  the  Marne, 
the  Oise,  increased  by  the  Aisne,  and,  on  the  left,  the  Tonne  and 
the  Eure. 

Rivers  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  —  The  Loire,  which  takes 
its  source  in  the  Cevcnnes,  and  flows  first  north  and  then  west, 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  35T 

possesses,  in  respect  to  navigation  and  commerce,  less  importance 
than  would  be  inferred  from  the  length  of  its  course. 

By  the  slime  which  it  drifts,  it  raises  its  bed  from  year  to  year, 
which  has  rendered  it  necessary  to  establish  (for  a  certain  extent) 
a  canal,  lateral  to  the  Loire,  that  renders  very  great  services.  It 
is  exposed  to  terrible  inundations,  to  counteract  which,  great  dikes 
have  been  constructed,  often  ineffectual  in  restraining  them. 
Among  other  fish  which  the  Loire  furnishes  may  be  mentioned 
the  shad,  of  the  herring  family,  sometimes  attaining  the  size  of 
three  feet.  Although  usually  inhabiting  the  salt  water,  it  repairs, 
like  the  salmon  in  spring,  to  milt  in  the  fresh  water.  The  afilu- 
ents  of  the  Loire  are,  on  the  left,  the  AlUer,  the  Cher,  the  Indre, 
the  Vienne,  and  the  Sevre ;  on  the  right,  the  Nievre,  and  much 
beyond  the  Mayenne,  increased  by  the  Sarthe. 

The  Garonne  rises  in  the  Pyrenees,  runs  north-west,  and 
under  the  name  of  Gironde,  flows  into  the  ocean  through  quite 
a  large  mouth.  But  in  consequence  of  its  inabihty  to  force  with 
sufficient  rapidity  through  this  gulf  the  waters  which  it  accumu- 
lates, this  surplus  water,  arrested  by  the  rising  tide,  rolls  back- 
wards, inundates  the  banks,  and  violently  tosses  ships.  This 
phenomenon,  known  by  the  name  of  mas-caret,  is  nothing  more 
or  less  than  a  water  bar.  The  principal  affluents  of  the  Garonne 
are,  on  the  right,  the  Tarn,  increased  by  the  Aveyron,  the  Lot, 
and  the  Dordogne  ;  on  the  left,  the  Gers. 

The  Douro,  and  the  two  succeeding,  are  rivers  of  the  plateau, 
from  which  Europe  derives  little  benefit,  as  they  issue  from  the 
mountains,  and  only  become  navigable  towards  their  mouths. 
The  Douro,  moreover,  flows  in  deep  ravines,  through  which  it  has 
hollowed  a  passage,  and  where  trees  and  warm  sheltered  nooks 
are  found,  whilst  on  the  surface  of  the  plateau  of  Old  Castile  trees 
are  unable  to  resist  the  impetuous  winds. 

The  Tagus.  —  Poets  have  lauded  the  happy  shores  and  flowery 
banks  of  the  Tagus ;  but  upon  beholding  its  steep  and  generally 
arid  borders,  its  turbulent  waters,  and  reddish  mire,  one  scarce 
knows  how  to  justify  its  ancient  reputation. 

The  Guadiana,  which,  like  the  two  preceding,  rises  in  the  Ibe- 
rian Mountains,  disappears  under  ground  in  the  plains  of  La 
Mancha,  and  reappears  at  eight  leagues  distance  in  the  Oyos  of 


858  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

Guadiana  {eyes  of  the  Guadiana)  —  great  waterspouts,  which 
issue,  bubbhng,  from  the  earth. 

The  Guadalquivir,  which  irrigates  the  low  plain  of  Andalusia, 
likewise  enjoys  a  poetic  reputation,  seemingly  at  variance  with  its 
turbid  waters  and  flat  banks,  which  are  monotonous,  marshy,  or 
surrounded  by  steppes,  tenanted  by  meagre  herds  of  cows.  Nev- 
ertheless, quite  large  craft  can  ascend  this  river  as  far  as  Seville ; 
and  this  circumstance  formerly  contributed  not  a  little  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  country.  In  the  times  of  the  Moors,  12,000 
villages  occupied  the  banks  of  the  Guadalquivir,  where  scarcely 
800  are  now  to  be  found. 

6.  Rivers  op  the  Mediterranean.  —  The  EhrOy  which 
waters  the  low  plain  of  Arragon,  has  smiling  borders,  where  trees 
flourish  and  multiply,  which  is  seldom  the  case  in  Spain.  The 
Imperial  Canal  facilitates  commerce  and  agriculture,  and  obviates 
the  necessity  of  following  the  sinuosities  of  the  river,  whose  course 
is  in  many  places  obstructed  by  rocks  which  have  become  de- 
tached from  the  adjacent  mountains. 

The  Rhone,  an  impetuous  river,  often  terrible  in  its  inundations, 
rises  in  the  glaciers  of  the  Furka,  in  Valais,  traverses  Lake  Le- 
man,  from  which  it  escapes  clear  and  rapid,  and  precipitates  itself, 
between  the  Jura  and  the  Alps,  into  a  species  of  gulf,  now  disen- 
cumbered of  the  rocks  with  which  it  was  once  thickly  studded. 
Arriving  in  the  valley  of  the  Saone,  the  river  is  augmented  by 
the  placid  waters  of  the  river  of  this  name  which  descends  from 
the  Vosges,  and  is  swollen  by  the  Doubs,  originally  from  the 
Jura.  Nearer  the  sea,  the  Rhone  receives,  on  the  left,  the  Iser  and 
the  Durance  —  impetuous  rivers,  which  proceed  from  the  Alps, 
and  the  latter  of  which,  especially,  obstructs  with  its  sands  and 
slime  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  the  coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Lyons. 
The  Island  of  Camargue,  between  the  two  branches  of  the  Rhone, 
is  a  marshy  and  unhealthy  country,  nourishing  considerable 
troops  of  horses  and  half  wild  cattle,  and  where  a  few  beavers 
still  exist. 

The  Arno,  which  rises  in  the  Apennines,  flows  north,  then 
west,  feeding  numerous  canals,  of  whose  waters  each  landholder 
avails  himself  in  his  turn,  during  a  definite  period ;  whereas  the 
river  formerly  submerged  the  greater  part  of  these  very  lands  by 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE.  359 

its  fatal  inundations.  The  whole  valley  of  the  Arno  is  excessive- 
ly fertile ;  but  the  principal  occupation  consists  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  elegant  straw  hats  called  Florence  braid.  This  ma- 
terial is  the  product  of  a  very  thickly  sown  wheat,  cut  before  its 
maturity,  and  is  the  object  of  a  special  cultivation.  Almost  all 
the  women,  even  when  walking,  braid  with  admirable  skill  and 
rapidity.  These  hats,  the  value  of  which  amounts  to  millions  of 
francs,  are  almost  all  sent  to  Paris,  whence  they  are  despatched 
throughout  the  world,  after  being  fashioned  and  trimmed. 

The  Tiber,  also  issuing  from  the  Apennines,  flows,  on  the  con- 
trary, south,  and  then  west,  its  turbid  and  yellow  waters  freighted 
with  such  a  prodigious  quantity  of  slime,  that  the  harbors,  former- 
ly constructed  by  the  Romans  at  its  mouth,  are  now  removed  to 
a  great  distance.  Its  enormous  and  sudden  risings  are  the 
scourge  of  the  countries  which  it  traverses.  It  possesses,  how- 
ever, the  advantage  of  being  almost  always  navigable  from  the 
sea  as  far  as  the  city  of  Rome,  but  its  borders  are  particularly 
exposed  to  the  disastrous  effects  of  the  malaria. 

The  Po  takes  its  rise  in  the  Western  Alps,  and  flowing  towards 
the  Adriatic  Sea,  receives  from  the  Alps  a  great  number  of  im- 
portant rivers ;  the  two  Doires,  the  Tessin,  issuing  from  Lake 
Maggiore,  the  Adda,  which  traverses  Lake  Como,  and  the  Mlncio, 
which  proceeds  from  the  large  and  beautiful  Lake  Garda.  The 
course  of  the  Po  having  been  restricted  from  time  immemorial 
by  dikes,  it  has  gradually  risen  to  such  a  point  that  the  surface 
of  its  waters  is  now  higher  than  the  roofs  of  the  houses  of  Ferrara, 
one  of  the  last  cities  which  it  traverses.  Moreover  the  daily  ac- 
tion of  the  waters  of  the  river  accumulate  at  its  mouth  deposits 
of  slime,  which  are  incessantly  extending  the  boundaries  of  the 
sea.  Thus  it  is  that  the  ancient  city  of  Adria,  a  celebrated  port, 
which  gave  its  name  to  the  Adriatic,  is  now  situated  at  more  than 
eight  leagues  from  the  shore. 

The  Adige,  which  descends  from  the  Tyrolese  Alps,  and  flows 
into  the  Adriatic,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  Po,  waters  a  nar- 
row, but  hot,  fertile,  and  extremely  picturesque  valley. 

The  Danube  would  be  the  first  river  in  Europe,  if  its  course 
were  not  in  many  places  interrupted  by  rocks  and  shallows.  It 
takes   its   rise   in   the  Black   Forest,  receives   from   the  Alps 


360  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

the  Lech^  the  iser,  and  the  Inn,  and  opens  a  passage  as  far  as 
Vienna,  almost  impracticable  on  account  of  the  islets  and  rocks, 
which  render  its  navigation  so  difficult  that  the  rafts  which  have 
descended  can  never  ascend  it,  and  are  sold  for  firewood.  From 
Vienna  the  river  enters  the  plains  of  Hungary,  where  it  winds 
among  low  and  sandy  islands,  and  is  augmented  by  the  waters  of 
the  Drave  and  Save,  which  descend  from  the  Eastern  Alps,  and 
of  the  Theiss,  which  rises  in  the  Carpathians,  and  of  which  the 
Hungarians  are  wont  to  say,  ^'  Fish  form  one  third  of  the  Theiss." 

Issuing  from  the  plains  of  Hungary,  the  river  is  again  encum- 
bered and  obstructed  by  rocks  which  completely  arrest  steamboats 
and  other  vessels.  The  fall  of  the  river,  at  the  Iron  Gate,  (as 
this  defile  is  called,)  is  about  15  feet ;  it  is  only  ascended  in  boats, 
towed  with  difficulty  by  men  or  oxen.  Below,  the  Danube  be- 
comes a  beautiful  and  broad  river,  which  proceeds  tranquilly 
across  the  low  plain  of  Wallachia  and  Bulgaria,  receives  the  wa- 
ters of  the  Pruth  on  the  left,  and  flows  into  the  Black  Sea  by 
four  mouths,  all  more  or  less  obstructed  by  sand,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  single  one,  the  Soulina;  and  yet  the  Russian  government 
is  daily  more  neglectful  of  this  circumstance,  which  materially  in- 
terrupts the  wheat  trade  that  Wallachia  might  carry  on  with  the 
countries  of  the  west  by  means  of  the  Black  Sea. 

The  Danube  abounds  in  fish,  and  its  banks  are  frequented 
by  multitudes  of  birds  —  snipes,  moorfowl,  storks,  herons,  and 
especially  by  troops  of  pelicans  —  great  palmipeds,  larger  than 


Pelican. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  361 

swans,  which  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  a  membranous  pouch 
suspended  beneath  their  bills,  and  in  which  they  accumulate  a 
stock  of  fish.  Persons  have  succeeded  in  taming  them,  but  not 
in  training  them  for  the  fishery,  as  the  Chinese  train  the  cormo- 
rants. On  the  borders  of  the  Danube,  as  in  the  limans  of  South- 
ern Russia,  it  is  curious  to  see  a  flock  of  pelicans  unite  in  a  circle 
around  a  bay  of  little  depth,  beating  their  wings  to  frighten  their 
prey,  and  slowly  approaching  the  shore,  until  the  fish,  contracted 
in  the  smallest  possible  space,  are  all  captured  by  their  formidable 
enemies.  It  has  been  said  that  no  bird  manifests  so  much  tender- 
ness for  its  young,  and  it  has  even  been  alleged  to  have  torn 
open  its  breast  to  nourish  them  with  its  blood ;  but  this  is  a  pure 
fiction,  as  ill  founded  as  it  is  ancient. 

The  Dniester,  which  rises  in  the  Carpathians,  and  the  Dnieper, 
which  has  its  source  near  that  of  the  Niemen,  and  receives  from 
the  immense  marshes  of  the  Pripetz  the  famous  Beresina,  are 
two  rivers  which  greatly  resemble  each  other.  Their  falls,  or 
rapids,  (the  Dniester  has  but  one,)  forbid  their  being  ascended 
except  at  the  period  of  very  high  flood ;  the  ice  obstructs  them 
during  5  or  6  months  of  the  year,  and  these  different  circum- 
stances greatly  diminish  their  commercial  importance.  The 
banks  of  the  Dniester  and  Dnieper  are  covered  with  reeds,  to 
which  the  borderers  set  fire  every  spring,  notwithstanding  the 
stringency  of  the  law  which  pronounces  against  the  guilty  the 
penalty  of  banishment  to  Siberia.  They  purpose  by  this  confla- 
gration both  to  obtain  new  and  more  abundant  growth,  and  to 
drive  from  their  hiding  places  multitudes  of  wolves,  which  they 
immediately  kill.  The  islands  which  the  high  waters  do  not 
overflow  swarm  with  serpents :  they  also  contain  many  geese, 
ducks,  and  pelicans.  The  Dniester  and  the  Dnieper  both  flow 
into  the  Black  Sea,  through  a  vast  liman,  in  which  the'  Dnieper 
is  enlarged  by  the  waters  of  the  Buff, 

The  Don,  which  takes  its  rise  towards  the  centre  of  Russia, 
annually  inundates  its  low  plain  ;  but  in  summer  it  has  not  suf- 
ficient water  for  large  craft.  Its  slimy  and  scarcely  potable  wa- 
ters are  increased  by  the  Donetz,  and  encumber  the  Sea  of  Azof 
with  their  alluvial  deposits.  It  is  principally  in  the  vicinity  of 
this  watercourse  that  the  Cossacks  reside,  called  the  Cossacks  of 
31 


362  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

the  Don,  They  cultivate  the  vine  on  the  borders  of  the  river^ 
and  manufacture  foaming  wines,  of  which  they  export  more  than 
a  million  bottles  a  year.  These  wines,  to  a  certain  extent,  take 
the  place  of  champagne,  which  is  very  expensive  in  the  country. 

River  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  —  The  Volga  takes  its  source 
at  the  west  of  Russia,  runs  first  east,  then  south-east,  and  flows 
into  the  Caspian  Sea  by  a  great  number  of  mouths.  In  its 
dimensions  this  river  ranks  first  in  Europe  ;  but  as  it  flows  into 
a  lake  which  has  no  communication  with  the  ocean,  is  surrounded 
by  steppes  and  peopled  by  nomadic  hordes,  the  Volga  has  not  the 
commercial  importance  of  which  its  size  would  otherwise  admit. 
Although  the  barks  which  navigate  it  are  numerous,  communica- 
tions are  never  so  active  on  its  borders  as  in  winter,  when  thou- 
sands of  sledges  thread  and  traverse  it  in  every  direction.  Its 
fisheries  are  immensely  productive ;  it  contains  especially  (as 
likewise  the  Danube,  and  all  the  other  rivers  of  Southern  Rus- 
sia) a  prodigious  quantity  of  sturgeons^  those  large  fish  whose 
eggs  are  employed  in  the  preparation  of  caviai'e,  and  theu'  blad- 
der in  the  formation  of  isinglass. 

Sect.  8.  Islands  op  Europe.  —  Islands  of  the  Arc- 
tig  Ocean.  —  The  islands  of  Nova  Zembla,  north  of  Russia,  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  the  Strait  of  Matotshkin,  and  both 
completely  covered  with  high  mountains.  The  winter  occupies 
three  quarters  of  the  year,  and  thick  night  broods  over  this  coun- 
try during  three  months.  In  summer,  the  snow  disappears  from 
the  plains  in  the  month  of  July,  and  then  in  the  well-sheltered 
portions  charming  flowers  expand,  which  scarcely  rise  above  the 
surface  of  the  soil.  The  most  common  tree  of  Nova  Zembla  is 
the  willow  of  the  poles^  which  rises  at  most  only  6  or  8  inches 
above  the  moss,  but  whose  principal  stalk  runs  and  creeps  to  a 
distance,  and  furnishes  a  valuable  fuel  for  seamen.  As  at  a 
slight  depth  the  soil  is  perpetually  congealed,  and  as  its  surface 
alone  imparts  warmth,  the  plants  creep  along  the  soil  in  order  to 
absorb  all  the  heat  of  the  atmosphere.  The  animals  are  rats, 
great  numbers  of  foxes,  aquatic  birds,  many  fish,  and  among 
others  salmon,  of  excellent  quality. 

These  islands  are  inhabited  only  during  the  summer,  by  a 
small  number  of  Russian  fishermen. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE. 


363 


Spitzhergen,  situated  at  the  northern  extremity  of  Europe,  is, 
as  its  name  indicates,  (pointed  mountain,)  an  island  bristling  with 
high  mountains,  all  of  whose  valleys  are  filled  with  enormous 
glaciers  which  extend  even  to  the  sea.  The  summer  is  of  only 
six  weeks*  duration,  and  during  the  winter  the  sun  remains  for 
four  months  invisible.  And  yet  vegetable  life  is  not  extinct  in 
Spitzbergen.  It  produces  no  trees,  but  the  willow  of  the  poles 
covers  the  ground  with  the  thick  network  of  its  small  branches; 
and  lichens,  mosses,  and  a  few  flowering  plants  clothe  the  rocks 
or  marshes ;  the  snow  itself  is  covered  with  microscopic  plants, 
composing  what  is  called  red  snow.  But  the  most  precious  plant 
which  is  found  in  these  desolate  regions  is  the  scurvy  grass,  a 


Scurvy  Grass. 

species  of  cress  which  flourishes  in  running  water,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  melting  snows  ;  this  icy  water  preserves  the  freshness 
of  its  leaves,  and  the  rigor  of  the  climate  robs  it  of  a  portion  of  its 
natural  acidity  without  depriving  it  of  all  taste.  Thus  the  sailor 
eagerly  gathers  the  only  edible  vegetable  afforded  by  this  sterile 


364  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

soil,  at  the  same  time  blessing  the  Providence  which  has  ordained 
that  this  salutary  plant  shall  vegetate  beneath  a  sky  where  the 
sailor's  malady,  the  scurvy,  aggravated  by  cold  and  dampness, 
makes  such  rapid  progress.  The  animals  of  Spitzbergen  are  quite 
numerous  ;  they  consist  of  gulls  and  other  sea  birds  —  the  eider 
duck,  with  its  precious  down  ;  whales,  and  more  especially  morses, 
and  white  bears,  those  awful  tyrants  of  the  polar  seas.  Spitz- 
bergen is  not  inhabited  ;  shipwrecked  crews  have  often  passed  a 
winter  there,  but  have  had  to  endure  almost  intolerable  priva- 
tions and  sufferings,  and  have,  for  the  most  part,  perished  from 
cold  or  from  the  attacks  of  bears. 

Islands  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  —  The  Loffoden  Islands, 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  Norway,  form  a  rocky  archipelago,  where 
the  harvests  rarely  have  time  to  ripen,  but  where  Providence 
compensates  for  the  insufficiency  of  the  crops  by  very  abundant 
fisheries.  Every  year  more  than  3000  boats,  each  manned  by  five 
hands,  are  employed  both  w^ith  the  line  and  net,  in  capturing  the 
immense  shoals  of  fish  which  frequent  these  coasts.  This  fishery, 
which  is  especially  profitable  during  the  winter  season,  involves 
terrible  fatigues  and  privations ;  but  nothing  can  deter  the  men 
of  the  north.  On  the  sea  they  are  active  and  happy,  while  on 
land  they  sink  into  profound  apathy.  Thus  the  youth  does  not 
consider  that  he  has  arrived  at  manhood  until  he  has  spent  a 
winter  at  Loffoden. 

Iceland,  a  large  island  situated  very  far  west  of  the  Loffoden^ 
Islands,  derives  its  name  from  the  icy  mountains  which  the  cur- 
rents often  accumulate  in  the  numerous  bays  with  which  its 
coasts  are  indented.  It  is  an  excessively  volcanic  country, 
where  subterranean  fires  produce  eruptions,  whose  ravages  are 
often  terrible.  Towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  in  conse- 
quence of  one  of  the  most  violent  which  had  yet  occurred,  such 
great  spaces  were  laid  waste  that  famine  and  disease  swept  away, 
in  the  course  of  two  years,  1300  men,  and  150,000  sheep  and 
horses.  Towards  the  centre  there  is  a  fearful  desert,  covered  with 
lava  and  ashes,  sprinkled  with  small  volcanic  cones,  while  close  at 
hand  enormous  glaciers  descend  from  the  mountains  even  into 
the  heart  of  the  land,  as  if  conflicting  with  the  empire  of  fire. 
Besides   Hecla,  and   some  others  less  known,  Iceland  contains 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUEOPE.  865 

curious  mud  volcanoes ;  one  of  which,  among  others,  raises  every 
five  minutes  an  enormous  liquid  column,  as  much  as  50  feet  in 
height.  It  is  especially  noted  for  its  Geyser,  which  throws  up,  at 
intervals,  powerful  jets  of  boiling  water,  to  a  height  of  150  feet 
or  more. 

Formerly  the  climate  appears  to  have  been  less  cold,  and  the 
island  then  possessed  forests ;  it  now  produces  only  stunted 
birches,  and  the  only  wood  which  is  found  there  is  the  driftwood 
which  the  currents  float  into  the  fiords  of  the  coast.  Potatoes 
and  legumes  are  but  httle  cultivated,  and  the  Iceland  moss,  which 
is  mixed  with  farina  or  cooked  with  milk,  constitutes  the  princi- 
pal harvest  of  the  Icelanders.  In  addition  to  this  should  be 
mentioned  that  of  the  hay,  wliich  is  of  especial  importance  in 
this  country,  as  the  cows,  horses,  and  sheep  (all  of  small  size) 
are  the  principal  source  of  the  welfare  of  the  inhabitants.  If  the 
crop  of  hay  proves  scanty,  or  if  the  winter  is  unusually  pro- 
longed, they  are  often  obliged,  for  the  preservation  of  their  cattle, 
to  add  to  the  fodder  a  hash  made  of  fishes'  heads.  Reindeer, 
(which  they  have  not  attempted  to  use,  as  in  Lapland,)  geese, 
and  wild  ducks,  among  others  the  eider  duck,  seals,  and  princi- 
pally fish,  somewhat  atone  for  the  poverty  of  the  soil.  The 
inhabitants  are  no  less  remarkable  than  their  country.  The 
Icelanders  are  an  educated  people,  who  have  preserved  the  an- 
cient language  of  Scandinavia,  of  wliich  they  were  a  colony. 
They  have  also  very  celebrated  poems  and  religious  traditions. 
The  island  contains  no  cities,  and  few  villages,  but  many  isolated 
farms.  Like  the  Danes,  upon  whom  they  are  politically  de- 
pendent, the  Icelanders  are  all  Protestants. 

The  Faroe  Islands,  a  gloomy  and  foggy  archipelago,  situated 
south-east  of  Iceland,  have  received  their  name  from  the  numer- 
ous sheep,  which  constitute  their  principal  wealth,  and  are  almost 
to  the  inhabitants  what  the  reindeer  is  to  Lapland.  From  them 
they  obtain  their  sustenance,  their  clothing,  the  tallow  wliich 
serves  to  illumine  their  long  winter  nights,  and  with  the  surplus 
of  the  wool  they  procure  money  for  buying  various  articles 
which  their  own  country  does  not  furnish.  Many  of  them  have 
flocks  of  500  or  600.  And  yet  they  are  suffered,  winter  and 
summer,  to  wander  in  the  fields,  without  being  gathered  into 


366  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

folds.  Neither  are  the  horses  the  objects  of  any  care.  The 
cows  alone,  on  account  of  their  daily  use,  enjoy  the  privilege 
of  eating  at  a  rack.  Sea  birds  afford  a  considerable  resource 
to  the  Faronians,  but  nothing  in  comparison  with  the  dolphin 
fishery.  As  soon  as  a  fisherman  has  discovered  in  open  sea  the 
presence  of  a  shoal  of  these  animals,  a  signal  is  immediately 
given  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast.  The  fishermen  spring 
into  their  boats  and  advance  in  a  semicircle,  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  enclose  the  dolphins  between  the  line  of  boats  and  some  bay. 
Soon  all  escape  is  impossible,  and  they  are  killed  with  blows  of 
clubs.  The  booty  is  then  divided  ;  one  portion  is  allotted  to  the 
king  and  church,  one  to  the  functionaries,  a  third  to  the  poor,  and 
the  fourth  to  those  who  have  taken  part  in  the  fishery.  The 
animals  are  afterwards  cut  in  pieces,  and  furnish  leather,  flesh, 
and  lard,  which  form  the  best  stores  of  the  Faronians.  From 
the  fat  of  a  single  dolphin  a  ton  of  oil  may  usually  be  obtained. 
The  inhabitants,  few  in  number,  are  also  subject  to  Denmark, 
and  are  all  Protestants. 

South-east  of  the  Faroe  are  the  Shetlands,  80  small  islands, 
only  half  of  which  are  inhabited,  and  which,  as  well  as  the  suc- 
ceeding, form  a  part  of  the  British  Isles.  They  are  mountainous, 
steep,  and  arid ;  the  sea  incessantly  ravages  their  coasts ;  the 
vegetation  is  composed  simply  of  heath,  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  soil  is  marshy.  The  sheep,  small,  almost  wild,  with  delicate 
flesh,  yield  a  very  soft  wool,  particularly  adapted  to  the  manu- 
facture of  flannel  and  hose.  The  most  remarkable  production 
of  these  islands  is  the  shelties,  or  ponies  —  complete  miniatures 
of  horses,  at  most  only  three  feet  in  height ;  they  are,  however, 
endowed  with  prodigious  strength,  in  proportion  to  their  size,  at 
the  same  time  that  they  are  very  easily  maintained,  and  of  per- 
fect docility. 

The  Orkneys,  30  islands,  only  half  of  which  are  inhabited,  are 
situated  south-west  of  the  preceding,  to  which  they  bear  much 
resemblance.  The  sea  is  there  also  very  tempestuous,  the  soil 
poor,  and  the  winters  long  and  severe.  The  fishery  of  seals  and 
common  fish,  as  likewise  the  hunt  for  sea  birds'  eggs,  furnish  occu- 
pation to  a  great  number  of  inhabitants. 

The  Hebrides^  west  of  the  preceding,  foggy,  damp,  and  partly 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE.  B6T 

sterile,  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  their  beautiful  colonnades  of 
basalt,  (a  black  volcanic  stone,)  which  one  would  suppose  carved 
by  the  hand  of  man.  Their  small  sheep  with  soft  wool  resemble 
those  of  the  Shetland  Islands.  The  hunt  for  petrels,  and  other 
sea  birds,  which  abound  on  the  rocky  shore,  is  the  principal 
resource  of  these  islands.  Suspending  themselves  over  the  preci- 
pices by  a  cord,  the  islanders  remove  the  eggs  or  the  little  birds, 
kill  the  old  ones  with  a  club,  and  make  prizes  of  all  that  fall  into 
their  hands.  Sometimes  flocks  of  these  birds  darken  the  air,  and 
at  other  times  the  rocks  of  the  shore  are  literally  covered  with 
them. 

Great  Britain  is  that  important  island  which  in  every  re- 
spect exercises  a  preponderant  influence  in  the  universal  prog- 
ress of  nations  towards  civilization.  Its  aspect  is  extremely 
diversified.  All  the  eastern  portion  forms  an  undulating  plain, 
intersected  with  low  hills,  admirably  cultivated,  and  generally 
presenting  a  most  luxuriant  verdure.  The  west  is  occupied  by 
mountains,  most  of  which  are  of  little  elevation,  but  often  quite 
"wild  and  picturesque ;  at  the  south-west,  the  Mountains  of  Gorn^ 
wall,  in  the  peninsula  of  this  name,  are  little  more  than  high 
hills,  celebrated  from  the  most  remote  antiquity  for  their  rich  tin 
mines,  some  of  which  penetrate  much  below  the  level  of  the 
sea;  from  these  districts  enormous  quantities  of  copper  and 
kaolin  are  also  obtained.  Farther  north,  the  ^fountains  of 
Wales,  with  rugged  sides  and  steep  and  foggy  summits,  are  rich 
in  their  inexhaustible  deposits  o^  pit  coa/,  always  accompanied 
by  abundant  mines  of  iron,  of  medium  quality.  The  Peaks,  or 
Pics,  north-east  of  the  preceding,  are  wild  and  gloomy  mountains, 
and  contain  rich  deposits  oi  lead,  the  most  considerable  in  Eu- 
rope next  to  those  of  Sierra  Nevada.  The  Cumberland  Moun- 
tains, at  the  north-west,  are  renowned  for  their  beautiful  valleys, 
cascades,  and  small  lakes,  presenting  the  aspect  of  an  English 
Switzerland  ;  mines  of  excellent  plumbago  are  there  worked,  to 
which  the  English  pencils  owe  their  superiority.  The  Cheviot 
Hills,  farther  north,  extend  from  one  sea  to  the  other,  and  sepa- 
rate England,  properly  so  called,  from  Scotland ;  these  cold  and 
uncultivated  highlands  have  given  their  name  to  a  race  of  sheep, 
with  thick  and  short  fleece,  which  pass  the  whole  winter  exposed 


86S  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

to  the  inclemency  of  the  air,  and  are  never  sheltered  in  folds. 
The  Grampian  Hills,  extending  from  south-west  to  north-east, 
produce  also  the  hlack-headed  or  heath  sheep,  for  which  the  Scotch 
are  endeavoring  to  substitute  the  preceding,  that  is  smaller,  but 
whose  meat  is  juicy  and  preferred  in  Scotland  to  any  other.  At 
the  north-west,  and  in  the  same  direction  as  the  foregoing,  from 
which  they  are  separated  by  a  line  of  picturesque  lakes,  and  by 
the  Caledonian  Canal,  are  found  the  Scotch  Mountains,  which 
are  of  a  still  colder,  wilder,  and  more  gloomy  character,  but  which 
attract  many  hunters  in  summer,  on  account  of  the  abundance 
of  their  game. 

The  climate  of  Great  Britain  is  not  unhealthy,  but  it  is  very 
uninviting.  Its  fogs  and  rains  are  proverbial ;  its  extreme  damp- 
ness is  unfavorable  to  wheat,  but  is  admirably  adapted  to  grass 
and  roots ;  thus  its  fresh  meadows  and  velvety  lawns  possess  a 
verdure  elsewhere  unparalleled.  Its  rainy  summers,  prolonged 
autumns,  and  very  mild  winters  always  preserve  an  agreeable 
vegetation.  Upper  Scotland  alone  (at  the  north-west)  has  long 
and  severe  winters. 

Minerals.  —  No  country  in  the  world  contains  such  rich  mines 
of  pit  coal  and  iron,  those  two  essential  implements  of  modem 
industry  ;  the  copper  mines  of  Cornwall  are  the  first  in  the  world 
after  those  of  Japan ;  the  tin  mines  rank  next  to  those  of  the 
Island  of  Banca  ;  those  of  lead  next  those  of  the  south  of  Spain ; 
finally,  those  oi plumbago  take  precedence  of  all  others.  And,  in 
order  to  facilitate  the  transportation  of  these  heavy  substances,  as 
also  that  of  all  other  merchandise,  the  English  are  favored  by 
the  deep  gulfs  which  indent  their  coasts,  and  by  the  existence  of 
numerous  rivers,  the  Thames,  the  Humher,  and  the  Severn,  all 
eminently  navigable,  and  which  have  enabled  them  to  establish 
canals  in  every  direction,  to  say  nothing  of  the  facilities  they 
have  enjoyed  for  constructing  innumerable  railroads,  in  a  country 
where  the  principal  materials  that  these  roads  require  are  ob- 
tained at  so  low  a  rate. 

Vegetables.  —  We  have  already  spoken  of  the  force  and  fresh- 
ness of  vegetation  in  England.  The  soil  of  this  country  is 
naturally,  however,  of  but  little  fertility.  Nearly  all  the  moun- 
tainous portion  is  composed  of  cold,  unfruitful,  and  sterile  land ; 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE.  369 

this  is  the  case  with  the  granite  hills  of  Cornwall,  with  the  moun- 
tains of  Wales,  and  especially  of  Upper  Scotland,  one  of  the  most 
harsh  and  unfertile  regions  of  Europe.  Even  in  the  plain,  heaths, 
marshes,  and  chalky  hills  form  the  greater  part  of  the  soil ;  but 
English  agriculture  has  succeeded  in  overcoming  all  these  obsta- 
cles, and  has  acquired  an  indisputable  superiority  over  that  of  all 
other  countries.  In  the  plain,  especially,  where  cereals  predom- 
inate, (for  in  the  western  portions,  which  are  more  damp  and 
rainy,  the  cultivation  of  herbage  is  most  important,)  wonders 
have  been  effected  in  reference  to  the  amelioration  of  the  soil. 
By  means  of  drainage,  that  is,  by  establishing  under  the  soil 
earthen  pipes,  suitable  for  facilitating  the  draining  of  the  water, 
meadows  and  fields  have,  within  ten  years,  been  redeemed,  the 
health  of  the  inhabitants  has  been  benefited,  and  the  fogs  have 
become  less  thick  and  heavy. 

The  principal  productions,  in  the  eyes  of  the  English,  are  the 
grass  of  their  natural  meadows,  and  that  of  the  plants  which 
compose  their  artificial  fodder  ;  the  trefoil,  (the  ray  grass  of  Italy,) 
which  may  be  cut  as  many  as  eight  times,  and  the  radishes  or 
tnrjiips  of  Sweden,  so  suitable  for  feeding  and  fattening  cattle. 
They  have  become  aware  that  by  ameliorating  and  augmenting 
their  fodder,  they  Would  increase  their  stock  of  cattle  and  manure, 
and  that  this  would  be  the  surest  means  of  enhancing  their 
produce  in  wheat.  Thus  nothing  presents  a  more  beautiful  or 
smiling  spectacle  than  the  meadows  of  England — its  greenswards 
covered  with  cattle  grazing  at  random,  without  keepers,  and  only 
confined  by  the  quickset  hedges,  which  enclose  every  estate. 
The  principal  vegetables  are  wheat  and  the  potato ;  barley,  of 
which  an  enormous  consumption  is  made  fbr  beer ;  oats,  which 
thrive  every  where,  but  especially  in  Scotland,  where  oatmeal 
gruel  is  the  national  dish ;  hops,  and  a  little  flax.  The  Eng- 
lish eat  few  fruits  and  vegetables,  because  both  are  with  them 
almost  tasteless. 

Animals.  —  The  most  striking  features  of  English  agriculture, 
in  this  respect,  are  the  number  and  quality  of  its  sheep.  Having 
discovered  that  of  all  animals  this  is  the  most  easily  maintained, 
and  the  one  which  yields  the  hottest  and  most  active  manure, 
the  agriculturists  have  found  it  for  their  interest  to  raise  many 


370  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

sheep.  Without  being  solicitous,  as  is  the  case  on  the  continent, 
to  procure  from  their  flocks  fine  wool,  which  can  be  furnished 
them  at  low  prices  by  their  colonies  of  the  Cape,  or  of  Australia, 
it  has  been  the  chief  object  of  the  English  to  improve  the  flesh  of 
their  sheep;  and  they  have  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  largest 
species,  which  acquire  their  full  development  in  two  years,  instead 
of  requiring  four,  and  it  has  immediately  doubled  the  revenue 
from  their  sheepfolds. 

Analogous  improvements  have  been  effected  with  the  bovine 
race.  Thus  the  short-horned  Durham  oxen,  which  are  beginning 
to  be  diffused  abroad,  become  fattened  at  the  age  of  two  years, 
and  attain  an  enormous  bulk ;  the  cows  have  also  been  amelio- 
rated, and  yield  a  greater  proportion  of  milk.  In  order  to 
accomplish  this,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  exonerate  both 
oxen  and  cows  from  the  toilsome  labors  that  are  imposed  upon 
them  on  the  continent,  and  which  are  performed  in  England  by 
horses,  and  within  a  few  years,  in  many  cases,  by  steam  engines. 
As  regards  horses,  the  superiority  of  the  English  breeds  has  long 
been  acknowledged.  It  is  well  known  that  the  admiration  for 
race  horses  is  a  national  passion  in  this  country ;  saddle  horses 
are  no  less  appreciated,  and  command  high  prices;  the  dray  or 
cart  horses  are  excellent.  Hogs  are  also  more  numerous,  better 
cared  for,  and  killed  younger  than  in  most  other  countries.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  English  raise  very  little  poultry,  which  they 
are  obliged  to  obtain,  for  the  most  part,  from  the  continent,  as 
likewise  eggs,  which  France  exports  to  them  every  year,  to  the 
amount  of  at  least  one  million  of  dollars. 

The  wild  animals  are  few  in  number.  Wolves  no  longer  exist 
in  the  island ;  but  the  fox  gives  rise  to  a  chase  very  captivating 
to  the  English  nobility.  The  latter  often  surround  their  houses 
with  vast  parks,  in  which  they  raise  many  varieties  of  game. 
Thus  (principally  in  Scotland)  there  exist  in  certain  forests 
herds  of  Scotch  stags,  or  red  deer,  which  sometimes  number 
thousands  of  heads.  But  the  most  habitual  object  of  pursuit  in 
the  mountains  of  Upper  Scotland  is  that  of  the  different  varieties 
of  the  woodcoclc  tribe — the  fork-tailed  woodcock,  which  prefers 
the  woods  and  damp  valleys,  the  heathcock,  which  frequents  the 
great  barren  mountain  tracts,  and  the  lagopus  ptarmigan,  which 


THE   CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE.  371 

is  only  content  on  the  summit  of  the  highest  mountains,  among  the 
snows,  whose  hue  its  plumage  every  winter  assumes.     One  va- 


The  Fork-tailed  Woodcock. 

riety  of  the  lagopus,  wholly  peculiar  to  Scotland,  is  the  grouse, 
whose  flesh,  which  exhales  a  strong  odor  of  venison,  is  highly 
appreciated  by  hunters.  This  is  the  most  celebrated  game  of  the 
Highlands,  and  its  hoarse  and  sonorous  cry  is  said  to  strike  to  the 
heart  of  every  true  Scotchman. 

Population.  —  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  island 
are  Anglo-Saxons ;  that  is  to  say,  belong  to  the  Germanic  race. 
In  Wales,  and  in  the  mountains  of  Upper  Scotland,  the  ancient 
Celtic  race  has  preserved  its  language  and  its  individuality.  The 
English  are  generally  tall  in  stature,  have  regular  features,  and  a 
calm,  grave,  and  cold  physiognomy.  Endowed  with  an  independ- 
ent character  and  great  energy  of  will,  they  are  essentially  practical 
and  independent  men.  They  possess  neither  the  depth  of  thought 
of  the  Germans  nor  the  intellectual  universality  which  charac- 
terizes the  French.  The' damp,  cloudy,  and  heavy  air,  in  the 
midst  of  which  they  live,  often  disposes  them  to  melancholy  and 
spleen ;  but  they  have  a  deep  love  of  nature,  and  appreciate  most 
highly  the  beauties  which  are  lavished  less  freely  upon  them  than 
upon  some  other  nations.  The  English  are  unsociable;  they 
nevertheless  evince  a  strong  attachment  to  their  country,  of  which 
they  are  very  proud,  and  domestic  life  is  extremely  revered  and 
powerful  among  them.  Laws  and  customs  are  also  astonishingly 
observed  in  this  land  of  liberty  j  thus  the  titles  and  rank  are 


372  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

always  the  inheritance  of  the  eldest  son,  which  explains  how  the 
colossal  fortunes  of  the  English  aristocracy  may  descend  from 
generation  to  generation  without  becoming  impaired  or  divided. 
All  the  members  of  the  upper  nobility  bear  the  title  of  lords  ;  the 
well-educated  and  wealthy  citizens  receive  that  of  gentlemen. 
Education  is  tolerably  good  in  England,  and  excellent  in  Scot- 
land ;  industry  prodigious,  and  commerce  universal.  The  Prot- 
estant religion  is  that  of  an  immense  majority  of  the  EngHsh  and 
Scotch,  and  no  nation  makes  such  considerable  sacrifices  for  the 
propagation  of  the  gospel  into  all  the  countries  of  the  world. 

Ireland.  —  West  of  Great  Britain  is  Ireland,  a  large  island, 
three  quarters  of  which  nearly  equals  England  in  natural  fertility, 
whereas  the  north-west  (Connaught)  resembles  the  most  unpre- 
possessing portions  of  Wales  and  Upper  Scotland.  The  scourge 
of  Ireland  is  the  dampness,  which  is  still  greater  than  that  of 
England.  Vast  miry  sw^amps  (hogs)  cover  at  least  a  tenth  part 
of  its  surface.  These  marshes  furnish  an  abundant  quantity  of 
turf,  the  ordinary  fuel  of  the  inhabitants.  The  aspect  of  the  Irish 
plains  is  generally  monotonous  and  gloomy ;  however,  the  coun- 
ties of  the  centre,  and  especially  the  valley  of  the  principal  river, 
the  Shannon,  are  clothed  with  a  perpetual  verdure,  no  less  beau- 
tiful than  that  of  the  plains  of  England.  The  productions  are 
especially  the  potato,  which  constitutes  almost  the  only  food  of  the 
poorest  portion  of  the  population ;  fiax,  the  cultivation  of  which 
has  greatly  increased  within  a  few  years,  especially  in  the  north- 
east, (Ulster ;)  oats,  which  are  used  for  bread  in  the  above-men- 
tioned province  ;  hemp  and  wheat,  almost  all  of  which  is  exported 
to  England.  Horned  cattle  and  hogs  are  very  abundant ;  thus  it 
is  principally  from  Ireland  that  the  English  navy  obtains  its  salted 
meat,  its  grease  and  butter.  The  majority  of  the  population  are 
of  the  Celtic  race,  and  speak  the  Erse  language,  a  dialect  similar 
to  that  of  Upper  Scotland ;  the  other  inhabitants  are  English  and 
Scotch.  The  Irish,  properly  so  called,  are  generally  Catholics  — 
ignorant,  superstitious,  extremely  indolent,  and  very  much  ad- 
dicted to  whiskey.  Their  poverty  exceeds  any  thing  to  be  met 
with  elsewhere ;  they  have,  for  the  most  part,  no  occupation,  and 
their  narrow  mud  cabins  serve  at  the  same  time  for  the  abode  of 
the  family  and  as  a  stable  for  the  cattle.     Excess  of  misery  has 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  373 

compelled  them  within  a  few  years  to  emigrate  in  crowds,  in  order 
to  gain  a  subsistence  in  England,  or  to  establish  themselves  in 
remote  countries,  whence  they  never  return. 

Between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  are  found  the  Isle  of  Man, 
noted  for  its  argentiferous  lead  mines,  and  the  Island  of  Anglesea, 
destitute  of  trees  and  hedges,  but  rich  in  copper,  cattle,  and  wheat, 
and  which  is  now  connected  with  the  principality  of  Wales,  both 
1>J  a  gigantic  wire  suspension  bridge  and  by  the  famous  tubular 
self-sustaining  bridge,  which  is  crossed  by  railway  trains. 

Near  the  southern  coasts  of  England  is  situated  the  beautiful 
Isle  of  Wight,  whose  soil  is  so  fertile  that  it  is  said  to  produce 
seven  times  as  much  wheat  as  its  inhabitants  consume.  It  is 
thence  chiefly  that  the  English  obtain  an  excellent  pipe  clay,  of 
which  they  manufacture  their  famous  pottery  ware,  so  remarkably 
cheap  and  of  very  elegant  form. 

Islands  of  the  British  Channel,  or  Anglo-Norman 
Islands:  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Alderney. —  The  first  is  a 
country  in  which  the  property  is  extremely  divided,  but  the  land  is 
every  where  cultivated  like  a  garden,  and  yields  abundant  reve- 
nues. The  soil  was  originally  poor,  but  by  careful  labor  has  been 
rendered  productive.  There  is  something  charming  in  the  aspect 
of  this  island,  presenting,  so  to  speak,  a  forest  of  fruit  trees,  inter- 
spersed with  meadows  and  small  cultivated  fields,  with  great  num- 
bers of  elegant  dwellings,  ornamented  with  vines,  myrtles,  and 
roses.  Guernsey  furnishes  emery,  a  species  of  iron  ore,  suitable 
for  polishing  steel.  The  little  Island  of  Alderney  is  celebrated 
for  its  fine  cows,  which  are  sought  throughout  England  on  account 
of  the  superiority  of  their  milk.  Great  precautions  are  taken  for 
maintaining  the  purity  of  this  breed. 

Islands  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  —  We  first  discover  in  this 
sea  the  group  of  the  Danish  isles,  Seeland  and  Funen,  between 
the  straits,  Laaland,  Falster,  and  much  farther  east,  Bonnholm, 
All  are  fertile  and  well  cultivated.  The  grain  crops  there  exceed 
the  necessities  of  consumption.  Laaland  and  Falster  produce 
wheat;  Seeland,  barley;  Bonnholm,  oats;  and  Funen,  hops. 
The  cherry,  plum,  pear,  and  particularly  the  apple  tree,  yield  the 
inhabitants  abundant  harvests,  a  portion  of  which  they  export  into 
Norway  and  Russia.  The  meadows  are  as  fresh  and  green  as 
32 


374  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

those  of  England;  many  cattle  and  horses  are  raised  there. 
These  smiling  islands  are  the  richest,  most  civilized,  and  most 
important  portion  of  the  kingdom  of  Denmark. 

Rugen^  south-east  of  Bonnholm,  is  a  considerable  tract  of  land, 
with  extremely  indented  coasts  and  a  fertile  soil,  which  attracts 
strangers  by  the  beauty  of  its  sites,  its  sea  baths,  and  its  Germanic 
antiquities.  Its  geese,  renowned  for  their  size,  furnish  commerce 
with  very  excellent  quills. 

The  Swedish  Islands  of  Oland  and  Gottland  are  fertile  and 
well-cultivated  countries,  whose  climate  is  milder  than  that  of  the 
neighboring  coasts,  but  which  merit  no  particular  attention.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  Islands  of  Dago  and  Oesel^  found  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  and  of  those  of  Aland,  situated  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  Their  coasts,  however,  fur- 
nish abundant  fisheries,  and  are  frequented  by  many  sea  birds. 

Islands  of  the  Mediterranean.  —  The  Balearic  Isles, 
east  of  Spain,  naturally  partake  of  the  climate  and  productions 
of  this  latter  country.  The  drought  is  the  scourge  most  to  be 
dreaded  there.  These  islands,  the  principal  of  which  are  Majorca, 
Minorca,  and  Iviga,  produce  oranges  as  celebrated  as  those  of 
Portugal,  olives,  figs,  lemons,  silk,  excellent  wines,  and  honey 
almost  as  famed  as  that  of  Mount  Hymettus.  The  animals  afford 
nothing  worthy  of  observation,  and  the  motives  seem  insufficient 
which  induced  the  ancients  to  bestow  the  name  of  these  islands 
upon  one  of  the  two  species  of  the  crane,  or  anthroporides  genus, 
(comprising  the  Numidian  crane,  and  the  crowned  crane,  or  crane 
of  the  Balearics.)  These  birds,  common  in  the  north  of  Africa, 
in  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the  borders  of  the 
Black  Sea,  are  celebrated  for  their  migrations,  during  which  they 
fly  in  numerous  bands,  in  two  triangular  lines,  or  forming  various 
letters  of  the  alphabet.  The  cranes  have  always  attracted  atten- 
tion from  their  singular  motions  and  grotesque  salutations,  or,  in 
other  words,  from  their  pantomimic  performances,  which  have 
won  for  them  the  epithet  of  comedians. 

Corsica,  east  of  the  Balearics,  is  a  large  and  celebrated  island, 
of  a  picturesque  and  wild  aspect,  very  mountainous  in  the  centre, 
and  containing  a  few  small  plains  on  the  coasts.  The  climate  is 
healthy  in  the  interior,  but  exposed  to  pernicious  fevers  in  the 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE.  375 

soraewLat  marshy  plains  of  the  east.     This  island  Is  not  deficient 
in  minerals,  the  most  curious  of  which  is  the  mmanthus,  or  as- 


The  Crane. 

hestos,  that  incombustible  stone,  from  the  fibres  of  which  the  an- 
cients made  cloth  suitable  for  enveloping  the  dead,  whom  they 
delivered  to  the  flames,  and  which  prevented  the  ashes  from 
mingling  with  those  of  the  funeral  pile,  thus  enabling  them  sub- 
sequently to  collect  them  in  funereal  urns.  The  vegetation  is 
rich  and  vigorous,  including  most  of  the  fruit  trees  of  the  -warm 
climes  —  oranges,  lemons,  olives,  mulberries,  and  the  vine ;  the 
walnut  and  chestnut  trees  acquire  considerable  dimensions,  es- 
pecially the  latter,  whose  fruits  nourish  a  portion  of  the  popula- 
tion, and  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  bread,  which  the  peasants 
are  often  obliged  to  crush  between  two  stones  before  soaking  it 
in  their  milk.  The  forests  of  the  interior  are  magnificent ;  there, 
for  example,  is  found  the  Corsica  pine,  (pi'nus  altissima,)  the 
highest  of  the  trees  of  Europe,  with  hard  and  elastic  wood,  emi- 
nently qualified  for  navy  purposes.     The  vegetation  of  this  island 


376 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 


is  characterized  by  its  maquir,  a  species  of  dense  copse,  from  3 
to  12  feet  high,  composed  of  arbute  trees,  of  vigorous  myrtles  and 
heath,  the  ordinary  refuge  of  bandits  and  fugitives  pursued  by 
the  law. 

We  must  not  omit  the  Corsica  moss,  which  grows  on  the  coast, 
and  which  is  frequently  employed  as  a  vermifuge.  In  order  to 
disguise  its  disagreeable  odor,  this  moss  is  usually  mixed  with 
jellies,  or  introduced  into  the  composition  of  certain  biscuit.     The 


The  Mufflon. 


only  remarkable  animal  is  the  mufflon,  which  inhabits  the  sum- 
mits of  the  mountains,  where  it  may  be  seen  skipping  from  rock 
to  rock,  with  a  fleetness  which  would  render  pursuit  unavailing, 
if  it  did  not  occasionally  pause  to  observe  the  movements  of  the 
hunter. 


THE   CONTINENT  OP  EtJEOPE.  377 

The  Island  of  Elba,  north-east  of  the  preceding,  and  noted  as 
the  place  of  Napoleon's  brief  residence  in  1814,  contains  very- 
abundant  iron  mines. 

The  Island  of  Sardinia,  south  of  Corsica,  from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  the  Strait  of  Bonifacio,  bears  much  resemblance  to  the 
latter,  possessing,  for  the  most  part,  the  same  climate  and  pro- 
ductions. Forests  of  orange  trees  are  found  in  Sardinia,  of  which 
one  alone  —  that  of  Mills — contains  more  than  500,000  trees.  In 
the  spring  the  ground  is  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  orange 
blossoms,  which  diffuse  their  balmy  odor  to  a  distance.  One  of 
these  trees,  under  which  King  Charles  Albert  reposed  in  1829, 
and  which  has  received  the  appellation  of  the  King  of  Orange 
Trees,  has  the  bearing  as  well  as  the  majesty  of  the  oak,  and  a  man 
cannot  compass  its  trunk  with  his  arms ;  some  of  the  largest  have 
yielded  as  many  as  5000  of  the  fruit  in  one  season.  As  in  Cor- 
sica, an  enormous  quantity  of  chestnuts  are  consumed,  and  acorns 
are  used  in  the  composition  of  bread.  These  fruits  being  stripped 
of  their  bark,  and  robbed  of  their  bitterness,  by  means  of  a  lye  of 
ashes,  are  pulverized  and  cooked  in  the  oven ;  and  this  pulp,  after 
hardening,  may  be  kept  several  months.  Among  the  animals 
there  encountered  are  the  mufflon,  the  wild  boar,  the  deer,  &c. 
But  the  most  curious  objects  are  the  flamingoes,  which,  in  autumn, 
arrive  in  innumerable  troops,  and,  like  clouds  of  flame,  alight  on 
the  borders  of  ponds,  where  they  remain  until  the  month  of 
March.  They  are  very  difficult  to  capture,  for  they  intelligently 
establish  sentinels  at  various  outposts,  which  forewarn  them  by  a 
cry  of  the  approach  of  man. 

Sicily,  a  large  and  beautiful  island,  south  of  the  preceding,  is 
separated  from  Italy  by  the  Strait  of  Messina,  where,  in  summer, 
by  an  optical  illusion,  or  mirage,  the  image  of  the  neighboring 
coast  is  sometimes  seen  reflected.  This  vision,  says  the  popular 
legend,  may  be  attributed  to  the  fairy  Morgana,  who  seeks  to  de- 
ceive sailors  in  order  to  lure  them  to  destruction.  This  island  is 
extremely  fertile,  but  agriculture  is  much  neglected  there ;  scarcely 
a  quarter  part  of  the  soil  is  cultivated,  and  it  is  capable  of  main- 
taining five  times  the  number  of  its  present  inhabitants.  The 
climate  is  very  hot,  the  productions  those  of  Southern  Italy. 
Wheat  always  succeeds  admirably,  and  gives  rise  to  the  principal 
32* 


378  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

commerce  of  the  country ;  it  is  preserved  by  means  of  pits  exca- 
vated in  the  rock ;  the  ohve  tree  attains  a  larger  growth  than  in 
the  other  portions  of  Italy ;  the  cactus,  whose  fruit,  in  the  form 
of  a  fig,  constitutes  the  food  of  the  indigenous  class,  borders  all  the 
footpaths ;  the  watermelon,  with  its  refreshing  juice,  acquires  an 
exquisite  flavor ;  the  fruits  of  the  date  tree  arrive  at  maturity ; 
the  sugar  cane  has  succeeded,  but  its  cultivation  is  abandoned ; 
the  vines  of  Marsala  produce  celebrated  wines.  On  the  other 
hand,  Sicily  contains  mines  of  considerable  importance;  the 
principal  are  those  of  sulphur,  from  which  England  'alone 
annually  obtains  500,000  quintals.  But  the  great  wonder  of 
Sicily  is  Mount  Etna,  a  terrible  volcano,  whose  lava  covers 
forty  leagues  of  soil,  which  is  very  fertile,  and  occupied  by  nu- 
merous villages,  the  only  ones  in  the  island.  The  ascent  to  its 
peak,  10,874  feet  elevation  above  the  sea,  is  somewhat  difficult; 
but  with  a  clear  atmosphere  one  can  thence  descry  not  only  Ca- 
labria and  the  adjacent  islands,  but  also  the  remote  coasts  of 
Africa :  this  is  a  magnificent  spectacle. 

The  Lipari  Islands,  north  of  Sicily,  present  several  volcanoes, 
one  of  which,  that  of  the  Island  of  StromboU,  is  constantly  in  mo- 
tion. Lipari  supplies  all  Europe  with  pumice  stone — that  volcan- 
ic, white,  porous,  and  light  substance  which  is  used  in  preparing 
many  metals  for  receiving  a  polish,  and  also  for  smoothing  the 
surface  of  wood,  parchment,  and  even  that  of  the  human  skin. 
Reduced  to  powder,  the  pumice,  known  under  the  name  of  poz' 
zolana,  serves  to  form,  mixed  with  lime,  a  cement  which  acquires 
a  great  durability  in  water, 

Malta,  south  of  Sicily,  an  island  extremely  celebrated  in  his- 
tory, and  a  strong  military  position,  is,  so  to  speak,  only  a  rock 
covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  earth,  retained  by  walls,  and  for  the 
most  part  brought  from  Sicily.  It  is  famed  for  its  oranges,  the 
beauty  of  its  roses,  and  its  delicious  honey.  The  small  adjacent 
Island  of  Comino  owes  its  name  to  the  quantity  of  cumin 
which  is  cultivated  there ;  Gozzo  is  fertile  in  cotton,  grain,  and 
potherbs. 

The  Ionian  Islands,  situated  on  the  western  coast  of  the  Hel- 
lenic peninsula,  (  Corfu,  Paxo,  Santa  Maura,  Theahi,  Cephalonia, 
Zante,  and  Cerigo,)  possess  the  climate  and  productions  of  Ca- 


THE    CONTINENT   OP  EUROPE.  379 

labria  and  the  Morea.  The  chief  exports  are  dried  currants, 
figs,  and  olive  oil. 

Candia,  a  considerable  body  of  land  south-east  of  the  Morea, 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  fertile  islands  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, but  it  is  very  mountainous.  One  of  its  principal  productions 
is  the  tragacanth  gum,  which  is  obtained  by  incision  from  a  shrub 
of  Mount  Ida  ;  it  is  used  in  medicine,  and  in  the  arts. 

The  Cyclades  (ranged  in  a  circle  around  Delos)  comprise  nu- 
merous islands,  the  principal  of  which  are  Santorin,  often  con- 
vulsed by  earthquakes,  and  thickly  sprinkled  with  pumice  stones ; 
Melos,  which  produces  a  much  esteemed  alum  ;  Kimolo,  or  Argen- 
tiera,  which  furnishes  cimolite,  a  species  of  clay  employed  in 
medicine ;  in  the  centre,  Naxos,  the  largest  of  the  Cyclades,  and 
which  contains  emery  mines;  Paros,  celebrated  for  its  famous 
marbles,  and  Antiparos,  with  its  caverns  and  curious  stalactites ; 
farther  north,  the  important  Island  of  Syra ;  Tenos,  rich  in  its 
wines,  and  the  most  verdant  of  all ;  and  Andro,  which  is  also 
very  fertile. 

Negropont  is  the  largest  island  of  Greece,  from  which  it  is  only 
separated  by  a  canal  so  narrow  that  a  bridge  has  been  constructed 
across  it.  It  possesses,  moreover,  the  climate  and  productions  of 
that  country. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA. 

Section  1.  Extent  and  General  Features.  —  Amer- 
ica is  a  double  continent,  whose  two  divisions,  of  triangular  form, 
are  united  by  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Panama^  only  50  miles  in 
width,  and  across  which  a  railroad  has  recently  been  constructed, 
by  means  of  which  it  may  be  traversed  in  four  hours. 

This  continent,  also  called  the  New  World,  because  it  has  only 
been  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Old  World  within  362  years, 
derives  its  name,  not  from  the  illustrious  Christopher  Columbus, 
the  Genoese  navigator,  who,  in  the  service  of  Spain,  discovered  the 
first  portions  in  1492,  but  from  a  Florentine  voyager,  Americus 
Vespucius,  who  visited  it  five  years  later,  and  boasted  in  Europe 
of  having  discovered  the  first  terra  firma,  so  called.  In  the  ninth 
and  tenth  centuries,  Scandinavians  had,  it  is  true,  passed  from 
Iceland  into  the  adjacent  countries  of  America,  (Greenland  and 
Labrador;)  but  their  establishments  had  acquired  little  impor- 
tance, and  were  unknown  to  the  people  of  Western  Europe. 

North  America  possesses  a  certain  number  of  important  penin- 
sulas, and  is  intersected  by  numerous  inland  seas,  bays,  and  gulfs. 

South  America,  on  the  contrary,  contains  no  peninsula,  and  its 
coasts  are  as  uniform  as  those  of  Africa.  But  a  considerable 
advantage  enjoyed  by  both  over  the  African  continent,  is  that  of 
possessing  immense  rivers,  navigable  for  the  whole  extent  of  their 
course,  and  by  means  of  which  even  the  most  central  regions 
may  be  put  in  habitual  and  easy  communication  with  all  the  rest 
of  the  world.  The  currents  and  trade  winds  wonderfully  facili- 
tate communications  by  sea  with  the  Old  World,  as  we  shall  soon 
perceive. 

We  have  already  spoken  in  a  general  manner  of  the  seas  which 
serve  as  boundaries  to  America.     In  only  remains  for  us  to 

(380) 


THE   CONTINENT   OP  AMERICA.  381 

describe  the  principal  bays,  or  internal  seas,  which  impart  to  the 
American  continent  its  peculiar  form. 

Sect.  2.  Bays  of  America.  Hudson's  Bay.  —  An  arm 
of  the  North  Atlantic,  projecting  into  the  interior  of  British 
America,  forms  the  vast  Hudson^ s  Bay,  whose  coasts  are  generally 
elevated  and  bordered  with  rocks.  This  bay  receives  rivers  of 
the  first  rank,  which  with  their  tributaries  establish  a  chain  of 
communications  throughout  the  country.  In  a  climate  which 
equals  that  of  Siberia  in  rigor,  these  innumerable  natural  roads 
lose  almost  all  their  utility.  The  ice  which  the  winds  and  polar 
currents  drive  into  the  middle  of  the  bay  accumulates  in  immense 
masses,  and  interrupts  navigation  even  during  the  months  of  July 
and  August.  On  land  are  to  be  seen  only  desolate  solitudes  fur- 
rowed at  their  base  with  fearful  abysses,  bristling  at  their  sum- 
mits with  sharp  peaks,  crowned  with  eternal  snows.  During 
eight  months  winter  reigns  absolutely  in  these  gloomy  regions, 
and  such  is  its  severity  that  ink  congeals  by  the  side  of  a  red  hot 
stove,  and  every  thing  is  frosted  with  a  thick  layer  of  snow,  which 
acquires  the  consistency  and  polish  of  marble.  Numerous  islands 
rise  from  the  bosom  of  the  waters  of  Hudson's  Bay,  but  they  are 
unimportant.* 

Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  —  This  gulf,  situated  at  the  north- 
east of  North  America,  at  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  most  consider- 
able rivers  of  this  portion  of  the  continent,  is  a  sombre  and  gloomy 
sea,  covered  with  almost  perpetual  fogs.  Nevertheless  this  is  one 
of  the  most  frequented  quarters  in  the  world,  on  account  of  the 
extraordinary  abundance  of  the  cod,  in  which  fishery  at  least 
3000  ships,  manned  by  40,000  or  50,000  English,  French,  or 
American  sailors,  are  annually  employed.  Only  the  smallest  por- 
tion of  these  innumerable  fish  are  taken  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence ;  but  the  immense  majority  of  the  cod  are  transported  to 
the  coasts  of  Newfoundland,  and  the  other  small  islands  of  this 
gulf,  to  be  salted  and  receive  the  other  preparation  which  they 
require  before  being  ready  for  market. 

It  is  on  the  Grand  Bank  of  Newfoundland,  south-east  of  this 

*  A  northern  passage  has  recently  been  discovered,  which  enables  the  Atlantic 
to  communicate  with  the  Arctic  Ocean;  but  the  latter  being  always  frozen,  it  is 
unavailable  to  commerce. 


382  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

island,  that  the  most  important  fisheries  are  carried  on.  This 
shoal,  which  is  700  miles  in  length  and  of  a  variable  breadth,  is 
only  covered  with  from  100  to  200  feet  of  water,  whose  tempera- 
ture, milder  than  that  of  the  neighboring  seas,  attracts  the  cod, 
especially  at  the  period  of  depositing  their  eggs.  This  fish,  from 
2  to  3  feet  long,  and  from  10  to  20  pounds  in  weight,  usually 
lives  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean.  Its  fecundity  is  prodigious,  for 
as  many  as  9,000,000  eggs  have  been  found  in  the  body  of  a 
single  one  of  them.  When  first  taken  out  of  the  water  it  is  called 
fresh  cod ;  salted  without  being  dried,  (which  is  the  practice  on 
the  Grand  Bank,  when  far  from  the  main  land,)  it  is  entitled 
green  cod  ;  salted  and  dried,  dry  cod  ;  dried  without  being  salted, 
stock  fish. 

In  April,  May,  and  June,  the  fishery  is  particularly  profitable  ; 
however,  it  is  usually  prolonged  until  August  or  September. 
Each  fisherman,  as  soon  as  he  arrives  upon  the  bank  of  New- 
foundland, or  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  establishes  himself, 
warmly  clothed,  in  a  tun,  lashed  alongside  the  vessel,  holding  in 
his  hand  his  long  line  furnished  with  different  baits.  As  soon  as 
a  fish  is  captured,  he  roots  out  its  tongue,  by  which  means  he  is 
enabled  at  the  end  of  the  day  to  ascertain  the  exact  number  of 
his  prizes ;  he  then  passes  the  cod  to  his  comrades  on  board, 
whose  business  it  is  to  cut  off"  the  head  and  remove  the  liver,  from 
which  they  subsequently  extract  the  celebrated  cod  liver  oil,  with- 
in a  few  years  much  employed  in  medicine,  for  invigorating  feeble 
constitutions.  Afterwards  the  cod  must  be  dressed,  that  is,  opened 
entirely,  the  bone  removed,  and  the  fish  thoroughly  cleansed.  It 
is  then  thrown  between  decks,  where  it  is  packed  with  alternate 
layers  of  salt ;  when  well  drained,  it  is  salted  anew  and  placed  in 
casks.  To  obtain  the  dry  cod,  the  fish  are  spread  for  several  days 
in  succession  on  the  strand,  in  order  to  subject  them  to  the  action 
of  the  sun,  and  are  carefully  collected  at  night.  After  being  thus 
exposed  to  the  sun  for  five  days,  they  are  disposed  in  heaps  until 
suitably  dried.  The  cod  thus  prepared  is  less  delicate,  but  it  has 
the  advantage  of  being  more  easily  preserved,  and  may  be  trans- 
ported into  hot  countries.  The  stock  fish  is  prepared  by  suspend- 
ing it  over  the  fire  and  drying  it  speedily  by  the  action  of  smoke. 
The  cod  fishery  not  only  yields  important  revenues  to  the  nations 


THE    CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  383 

engaged  in  it,  but  is  also,  on  account  of  the  dangers  which  it  pre- 
sents, an  excellent  school  of  discipline  for  sailors.  Thus  the 
governments  of  America  and  Europe  have  always  bestowed  the 
greatest  encouragement  upon  these  remote  expeditions. 

Gulp  of  Mexico.  —  The  Atlantic  Ocean,  penetrating  into 
the  land  at  the  south-east  of  North  America,  forms  a  vast  inland 
sea,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Of  all  the 
seas  of  the  torrid  zone,  this  is  the  most  subject  to  tempests,  thun- 
der storms,  waterspouts,  tornadoes  or  whirlwinds^  and  also  to 
stifling  calms.  As  soon  as  the  winds  of  the  north-west,  called 
los  norteSf  begin  to  blow,  they  render  the  coasts  almost  inaccessi- 
ble during  several  months,  from  the  autumnal  equinox  until  the 
season  of  spring. 

These  coasts  are  generally  low,  bordered  with  lagoons  and 
sand  banks,  destitute  of  good  ports,  and  exposed  to  dangerous 
fevers.  This  is  the  primitive  country  of  the  yellow  fever,  as 
Lower  Egypt  was  for  a  long  time  the  seat  of  the  plague.  This 
terrible  malady,  which  bears  in  these  countries  the  lugubrious 
name  of  black  vomit,  (vomito  negro,)  is  especially  fatal  to  stran- 
gers. Sometimes  the  passing  traveller  is  struck  by  it  as  with  an 
invisible  ball.  Coming  direct  from  the  mountains  of  the  interior, 
(a  region  inaccessible  to  the  yellow  fever,)  he  may  traverse  the 
Mexican  port  of  Vera  Cruz  in  a  sedan  chair,  embark  immedi- 
ately on  board  ship,  and,  shot  on  the  wing,  as  it  were,  die  on  the 
open  ocean. 

Nowhere  are  sea  tortoises  so  abundant  as  on  the  islands  and 
coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  inhabitants  are  said  to  be 
adepts  in  the  art  of  entrapping  them,  and  make  great  consump- 
tion of  their  flesh  and  eggs.  A  great  quantity  of  remarkable 
shell  fish  are  also  procured  in  these  regions,  one  of  which,  among 
others,  on  the  coasts  of  Mexico,  furnishes  a  dye  similar  to  the 
purple  of  the  ancients.  The  thread  or  piece  of  cloth  destined  to 
receive  this  dye  is  carried  into  the  sea,  and  the  shell  fish  being 
torn  from  the  rock,  the  tint  is  immediately  applied.  This  color 
at  first  appears  green,  but  by  exposure  to  the  sun  becomes  purple 
or  violet. 

Caribbean  Sea.  —  This  sea,  situated  south  of  the  preced- 
ing, derives  its  name  from  the  most  ancient  population  of  the 


384  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

islands,  the  wild  Caribs.  It  is  convulsed  from  time  to  time  by 
gales  of  wind,  and  the  terrible  hurricanes  of  the  Antilles  ;  but 
in  ordinary  weather  its  w^aters  are  so  tranquil,  and  of  such  a 
transparency,  that  the  coral  and  fish  can  be  discovered  at  sixty 
fathoms  depth ;  vessels  seem  to  soar  in  the  air,  and  a  kind  of 
vertigo  seizes  the  voyager,  whose  eye  penetrates  through  the 
limpid  fluid  into  the  midst  of  these  submarine  gardens,  where 
shells  and  goldfish  glitter  among  tufts  of  fucus  and  thickets  of 
sea  weed. 

The  Channel  of  Yucatan^  by  which  this  sea  communicates 
with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  presents  on  its  two  banks  the  curious 
phenomenon  of  springs  of  fresh  water,  bubbling  up  from  the 
bosom  of  the  briny  waves.  They  rise  with  such  force,  two  or 
three  miles  from  the  shore,  that  the  approach  to  these  singular 
places  is  dangerous  for  small  craft.  Coasting  vessels  sometimes 
come  thither  to  obtain  from  the  midst  of  the  sea  a  supply  of  fresh 
water,  whose  quality  improves  with  its  depth. 

The  most  remarkable  phenomenon  of  these  regions  is  the 
famous  current  known  by  the  name  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  of  which 
we  have  previously  made  mention.  It  may  be  considered  as  the 
effect  of  the  trade  winds,  and  of  a  gentle  but  universal  move- 
ment, which,  within  the  tropics,  bears  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic 
from  east  to  west,  towards  the  shore  of  the  American  continent. 
This  uniform  movement  does  not  materially  agitate  the  waters 
of  the  ocean  from  the  Canary  Islands  to  the  north-eastern  coast 
of  South  America,  which  are  of  such  perfect  tranquillity  that  a 
ship's  boat  might  safely  traverse  this  space,  to  which  the  Span- 
iards have  given  the  name  of  Sea  of  the  Ladies.  But  although 
tranquil,  this  movement  is  none  the  less  strong;  it  accelerates 
the  progress  of  ships  which  are  bound  from  the  Canaries  to 
America,  while  it  renders  the  crossing  in  a  direct  line  from  west 
to  east,  along  the  coast  of  South  America,  more  difficult. 

This  current,  which  the  American  continent  intercepts  in  its 
progress,  first  directs  its  course  towards  the  north-west,  skirting 
the  Bays  of  Mosquito  and  Honduras,  penetrates  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  winds  with  all  the  sinuosities  of  the  coasts,  where  it 
contributes,  more  than  any  other  cause,  to  the  accumulation  of 
the  sand,  and  escapes  from  the  gulf,  on  the  east,  tlirough  the 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  385 

Florida  Pass  ;  forming,  as  it  were,  a  vast  river  of  warm  water,  of 
about  fifteen  leagues  in  width,  and  a  rapidity  of  from  two  to  five 
miles  an  hour.  It  may  easily  be  distinguished  from  the  sur- 
rounding sea,  not  only  by  its  higher  temperature,  but  also  by  the 
deep-blue  color  of  its  waters,  and  by  their  exceeding  saltness. 

Issuing  from  the  Florida  Pass,  the  current  first  follows  the 
coast  of  America,  but  soon  recedes  from  it  in  a  north-easterly 
direction,  considerably  diminishing  both  in  heat  and  velocity,  and 
widening  to  such  a  degree  as  to  stretch  from  the  Bank  of  New- 
foundland on  one  side  to  the  Azores  on  the  other.  It  divides 
into  many  branches,  some  of  which  lose  themselves  on  the  north- 
west coasts  of  Europe,  others  in  the ,  Mediterranean,  while  others, 
following  the  coasts  of  Africa,  again  reenter  the  great  equato- 
rial current,  to  recommence  that  immense  voyage  which  it  re- 
quires no  less  than  three  years  and  a  half  to  accomplish. 

The  influence  of  this  current  is  much  greater  than  is  commonly 
supposed.  It  thence  results  that  the  passage  from  Europe  to  the 
United  States,  in  which  vessels  sail  against  the  Gulf  Stream,  is 
obviously  longer  than  the  return,  when  the  current  favors  their 
progress.  These  warm  waters,  transported  into  the  northern 
seas,  sensibly  temper  the  cold  on  the  Bank  of  Newfoundland : 
thus  is  partly  explained  the  difference  which  in  equal  latitudes 
is  observable  between  the  climate  of  North  America  and  that  of 
Europe.  The  latter,  whose  prevailing  winds,  proceeding  from 
the  west,  are  tempered  by  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream, 
enjoys  so  partial  a  climate  that  barley  is  cultivated  even  in  the 
environs  of  the  North  Cape,  (Norway,)  while  American  coun- 
tries, situated  in  the  same  latitude  as  England,  are  subject  to  cold 
so  severe  as  to  render  them  sterile. 

Gulf  of  California.  —  This  sea  somewhat  resembles  the 
Adriatic.  Penetrating  deeply  into  the  land  towards  the  middle  of 
the  western  coasts  of  North  America,  it  is  sometimes  called  Ver- 
milion (or  red)  Sea,  both  from  the  tint  communicated  to  the 
water  in  the  rainy  season,  by  the  rivers  which  empty  into  it  after 
traversing  ferruginous  soils,  and  from  the  magnificent  purple 
color  which  its  waves  ordinarily  assume  at  the  rising  and  setting 
of  the  sun. 

The  two  coasts  of  this  sea  are  very  low,  and  replete  with  salt 
33 


386  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

marshes,  swarming  with  reptiles  and  insects.  Their  aspect  is 
generally  gloomy  and  barren.  The  pearl  fishery,  which  possessed 
great  importance  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  has  now, 
dwindled  to  insignificance.  It  then  occupied  700  or  800  divers, 
who  realized  considerable  profits ;  but  the  Indians,  who  were 
usually  employed  in  it,  finally  refused  to  engage  in  an  occupation 
in  which  many  of  them  were  annually  devoured  by  sharks,  and 
by  a  species  of  monstrous  ray,  nearly  twelve  feet  in  length. 

Sect.  3.  Peninsulas  op  America.  Labrador. — Be- 
tween Hudson's  Bay,  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  extends  a  large  triangular  peninsula,  similar  in  shape 
to  Arabia  reversed.  It  is  that  of  Labrador,  so  called  through 
the  strange  delusion  of  a  Portuguese  navigator,  who  very  erro- 
neously imagined  that  it  offered  great  advantages  for  agriculture. 

This  country  presents  a  most  gloomy  aspect.  So  far  as  it  is 
known,  it  is  a  mass  of  rocks  and  mountains,  intersected  by  nu- 
merous rivers  and  lakes.  All  its  summits  are  constantly  crowned 
with  snow.  The  country  beyond  the  coasts  acquires  a  less  deso- 
late aspect,  producing  some  forests  and  verdure,  and  a  tolerable 
supply  of  grass  for  animals. 

Climate.  —  Under  the  influence  of  the  perpetual  fogs  which 
veil  the  neighboring  seas,  Labrador  is  a  much  colder  country 
than  might  reasonably  be  expected  from  its  latitude.  The  win- 
ter, which  lasts  at  least  eight  months,  is  one  of  extreme  severity  ; 
the  lakes  are  covered  with  a  crust  of  ice  twelve  feet  in  thickness. 
Notwithstanding  the  enormous  iron  stoves  which  the  missionaries 
have  imported  from  Europe,  and  the  great  heaters  placed  in  the 
middle  of  the  rooms,  water  is  often  found  frozen,  in  the  morning, 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  stove ;  the  cold  frequently  stops 
the  pendulums,  and  the  coverlets  of  beds  become  stiffened  with 
the  frozen  breath.  If,  during  the  day,  the  wind  happens  to  blow 
with  especial  violence,  the  cold  is  still  more  intense.  Even  in 
summer  it  is  scarcely  warm,  and  the  missionaries  have  extreme 
difficulty  in  raising  a  few  vegetables.  In  the  middle  of  April 
the  seed  is  sown  in  boxes,  which  are  kept  within  dooi'S.  When 
the  plants  have  sprouted,  they  are  transferred  to  larger  boxes, 
and  placed  before  those  windows  which  are  exposed  to  the  sun. 
Towards  the  end  of  June  they  are  transplanted  into  the  open 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  387 

ground,  but  the  nights  are  still  so  cold  that  their  growth  is  very 
slow.  These  vegetables  do  not  arrive  at  their  maturity  until  July 
and  August,  and  are  very  inferior  to  ours.  The  potato,  for  ex- 
ample, rarely  blossoms  there. 

Vegetables.  —  It  is  thence  easy  to  infer  how  poor  must  be  the 
vegetation  of  such  a  country.  In  the  southern  part  are  found 
forests  of  firs,  larches,  birches,  and  poplars ;  farther  north,  the 
trees  give  place  to  stunted  shrubs,  which  disappear  in  their  turn 
towards  the  60th  degree  of  latitude.  For  enriching  their  gardens, 
the  few  Europeans  established  in  these  countries  make  use  of  the 
sea  weed  which  the  waves  cast  upon  the  shore  during  the  heavi- 
est storms.  The  natives  collect  it  also,  but  with  them  it  is  an 
article  of  food.  It  is  astonishing  to  see  them  eat,  with  the  great- 
est relish,  this  perfectly  raw,  moist  weed,  in  the  crude  state  in 
which  the  waves  have  deposited  it.  Truly,  for  this  one  must 
have  the  stomach  of  an  Esquimaux. 

The  animals  in  Labrador,  as  in  all  the  frigid  countries  of  both 
hemispheres,  constitute  the  principal  resource  of  the  inhabitants. 
Those  of  the  eastern  coast  depend  almost  entirely  upon  the  seals, 
or  marine  calves,  which  they  kill  in  great  numbers  in  autumn, 
when  these  animals  return  from  the  more  northern  seas.  If  the 
seals  disappoint  them,  or  appear  in  diminished  numbers,  cruel 
famines  ensue,  which  cause  the  terrible  privations  of  the  long 
winter  to  be  still  more  keenly  felt.  The  chase  of  ducks,  which 
furnish  the  eider  down,  and  of  foxes,  which  are  commonly  taken 
in  traps,  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  damage  their  beautiful  fur, 
is  also  a  small  source  of  profit  to  the  inhabitants.  In  the  interior 
of  the  country  they  hunt  reindeer,  otters,  beavers,  hares,  foxes, 
bears,  (black  and  white,)  wild  cats,  (terrible  destroyers  of  game,) 
and  carcajous,  or  gluttons  of  Labrador,  a  species  of  American 
badger,  which  subsist  on  fruits  and  small  animals,  and  dig  deep 
and  sinuous  burrows,  from  which  they  are  often  ousted  by  the 
foxes.  In  the  mountains,  the  ptarmigan  is  also  pursued  :  this  is 
a  bird  of  the  grouse  species,  whose  varying  plumage,  blending  in 
summer  with  the  lichen  and  moss  which  cover  the  rocks  beneath 
which  it  seeks  shelter,  bleaches  in  proportion  as  the  season  ad- 
vances, and  in  winter  assumes  almost  the  hue  of  the  snow  which 
surrounds  it.    Thus  these  fowls  are  not  easily  captured,  although 


388  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

they  furnish  an  excellent  food.  They  are  generally  seized  by 
the  nech,  and  may  be  preserved  frozen  for  a  great  length  of  time. 

The  population  is  composed  principally  of  Esquimaux,  men 
of  small  stature  and  a  yellow  skin,  who  evidently  belong  to  the 
Mongolian  race.  They  have  a  flat  face,  short  nose,  thick  lips, 
large  and  flexible  ears,  stiff  black  hair,  and  very  small  hands  and 
fQQt,  They  feast  on  the  flesh  of  seals,  and  regale  themselves  on 
the  oil  of  lish.  Such  a  passion  for  tallow  and  greasy  substances 
astonishes  and  disgusts  us ;  but  a  very  reasonable,  natural  instinct 
seems  to  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  populations  of  these  frigid 
regions,  for  at  the  same  time  that  the  fat  serves  to  warm  and 
illumine  their  dwellings,  it  also  imparts  to  the  interior  of  the  body 
that  strength  and  heat  of  which  the  Esquimaux  has  need  in  the 
cold  and  severe  climate  of  the  country  which  he  inhabits.  Thus 
my  young  readers  will  not  be  very  much  surprised  to  learn,  that 
at  one  of  their  stations  the  missionaries  having  prepared  a  beau- 
tiful Christmas  tree,  adorned  with  little  candles,  for  the  entertain- 
ment of  the  school  children,  the  latter,  after  enjoying  for  a  moment 
the  spectacle  of  these  dazzling  lights,  begged  permission  to  extin- 
guish them  in  order  to  eat  them. 

The  apparel  of  the  Esquimaux  consists  of  a  garment  of  double 
reindeer  skin,  which  descends  from  the  chin  to  the  knees ;  behind 
is  attached  a  hood  for  covering  the  head ;  their  feet  are  encased 


Esquimaux. 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  389 

in  great  boots  of  skin,  with  the  hair  turned  inward.  The  women 
have  nearly  the  same  costume  as  the  men,  except  that  their  boots, 
in  the  form  of  bags,  are  much  more  ample,  and  are  sometimes 
used  as  pockets,  or  even  as  cradles  for  their  infants.  The  nature 
of  the  skins  and  furs  varies,  however,  according  to  the  season.  It 
is  also  the  same  with  their  dwellings.  The  ordinary  houses  are 
composed  of  a  rough  wooden  or  whalebone  frame,  above  which 
is  placed  a  thick  layer  of  turf.  In  summer  the  Esquimaux  live 
under  circular  tents  built  on  poles,  and  covered  with  skins  sewed 
together ;  with  these  tents  they  are  continually  migrating  from 
one  place  to  another.  But  if  obliged  to  travel  in  the  winter,  they 
construct  themselves  a  temporary  hut,  by  cutting  huge  square 
blocks  in  the  hard  snow,  which  they  pile  one  upon  another,  so  as 
to  form  in  the  interior  a  regular  dome,  the  centre  of  which  is  nine 
or  ten  feet  in  height.  A  large  piece  of  thin  and  transparent  ice 
answers  for  a  window.  When  the  hut  is  filled  with  men  and 
dogs,  and  lighted  by  a  good  lamp,  a  tolerably  comfortable  tem- 
perature is  maintained;  sometimes,  however,  the  cold  terribly 
penetrates  these  abodes.  No  journeys  are  performed  with  greater 
rapidity  than  those  of  the  Esquimaux,  When  the  sledding  is 
good,  it  is  no  rare  thing  for  them  to  accomplish  as  many  as  forty 
leagues  in  a  day.  Twenty  dogs  are  usually  harnessed  together 
for  the  transportation  of  travellers.  These  animals  are  of  the 
wolf-dog  race ;  they  are  ill  favored,  and  little  can  be  said  in  praise 
of  their  dispositions.  They  often  draw  and  run  in  a  very  dis- 
orderly manner,  and  consequently  become  caught  in  the  shafts, 
compelling  travellers  to  stop  and  disentangle  them.  To  insure 
good  order,  a  thoroughly  trained  dog  must  be  placed  at  the  head ; 
but  a  very  skilful  driver  is  no  less  indispensable,  who,  by  constantly 
flourishing  a  long  whip,  spurs  his  beasts  and  directs  them  by  his 
vociferous  and  incessant  cries. 

A  portion  of  the  Esquimaux  of  Labrador  are  still  idolaters, 
subject  to  dreaded  sorcerers,  abandoned  to  polygamy  and  every 
species  of  vice.  But  the  gospel  has  also  obtained  great  triumphs 
in  the  midst  of  these  unfortunate  tribes.  Missionaries  of  the 
church  of  the  Moravian  Brethren,  braving  the  cold  and  every  kind 
of  privation,  have  succeeded  in  establishing  themselves  in  the 
midst  of  the  Esquimaux,  introducing  among  them  some  of  the 
33* 


390  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

arts  of  Europe,  teaching  them  prudence,  and  imparting  to  them 
a  knowledge  of  Jesus  Christ.  After  long  years  of  labor  and 
expectation,  they  have  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  clustered  around 
-their  principal  stations,  Nam,  Hebron,  OkhaJc,  and  Hopedale, 
churches  and  flourishing  schools,  whose  example  and  influence 
extend  to  a  distance  into  the  countries  of  the  interior.  Unfortu- 
nately, European  colonists  have  located  themselves  in  increasing 
numbers  in  the  southern  part,  and  exercise  a  very  unfortunate 
influence  upon  the  natives,  whose  welfare  the  missionaries  are 
endeavoring  to  promote. 

Nova  Scotia.  —  This  small  peninsula  extends  between  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  at  the  north,  the  Atlantic  Ocean  at  the 
east,  and  the  Bay  of  Fundy  at  the  south-west.  This  latter,  which 
separates  Nova  Scotia  from  New  Brunswick,  is  a  deep  gulf,  very 
much  indented,  where  navigation  is  impeded  at  certain  seasons  by 
thick  fogs  and  ice,  and  where  the  tides,  which  attain  the  extraor- 
dinary height  of  from  60  to  70  feet,  come  in  with  such  rapidity 
that  the  cattle  grazing  near  the  shore  are  often  surprised  and 
submerged. 

The  aspect  of  this  peninsula  is  generally  rugged  and  mountain- 
ous, especially  towards  the  north ;  the  coasts  are  for  the  most 
part  sandy,  but  at  some  distance  from  the  sea  the  soil  is  ex- 
tremely fertile. 

The  climate  is  very  severe  in  winter ;  the  sea  fogs  then  render 
the  atmosphere  dense  and  unhealthy;  the  heat  in  summer  is, 
however,  very  great,  and  rapidly  ripens  the  crops. 

The  mineral  productions  are  not  various ;  it  produces  pit  coal, 
also  iron,  reputed  equal  to  that  of  Sweden. 

The  vegetation  is  that  of  the  cold  temperate  countries.  The 
fields  are  sown  with  wheat,  rye,  peas,  kidney  beans,  and  various 
vegetables,  hemp,  flax,  &c. ;  gooseberries  and  raspberries  grow  to 
perfection  in  the  woods  which  crown  the  heights.  The  forests 
contain  superb  speciraens  of  oak,  fir,  pine,  and  birch  trees,  from 
which  the  inhabitants  derive  important  revenues.  They  furnish 
material  for  numerous  ships,  constructed  at  Halifax,  the  principal 
commercial  port  in  the  country,  and  much  of  this  wood  is  exported 
to  England  for  building  purposes.  Thus  navigation  in  the  neigh- 
boring seas  and  in  the  River  St.  Lawrence  is  extremely  active, 


THE    CONTINENT    OF    AMERICA. 


391 


favored  as  it  is,  moreover,  by  the  circumstance  that,  among  all  the 
civilized  countries  of  America,  there  is  none  which  lies  so  near 
to  Europe  as  Nova  Scotia.  The  great  steamships  do  not  require 
more  than  five  or  six  days  to  accomplish  the  distance  from  Hali- 
fax to  the  western  coast  of  Ireland,  and  the  electric  telegraphs 
then  instantaneously  transmit  the  news  from  these  two  extreme 
points  to  the  interior  of  the  two  continents. 

The  animals  of  Nova  Scotia  are,  for  the  most  part,  the  same 
as  those  of  Labrador.  The  rivers  abound  in  fish,  and  especially 
in  salmon;  the  forests  in  small  game.  There  are  found  an 
abundance  of  foxes,  deer,  and  sometimes  also  the  moose  deer,  or 
American  elk.  This  animal,  which  is  larger  than  the  European 
elk,  commonly  attains  the  size  of  a  horse.  The  male  has  horns 
similar  to  those  of  the  stag,  and  weighing  as  much  as  fifty  pounds ; 
it  sheds  them  every  spring.     In  summer  the  elk  frequents  low 


The  Moose  Deer. 

and  damp  forests  and  marshy  places,  for  the  purpose  of  im- 
mersing itself  in  water  in  order  to  preserve  itself  from  the  attacks 
of  insects  ;  in  winter,  it  inhabits  high  places.  Its  fore  quarters 
being  higher  than  its  hind  ones,  it  is  obliged,  when  grazing,  to 
spread  its  fore  feet.     It  trots  heavily,  and  its  gait  has  none  of  the 


392  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

grace  of  the  stag.  It  is  hunted,  like  the  latter,  by  men  and  dogs. 
In  winter  the  Americans  find  this  chase  less  difficult  than  in  sum- 
mer, because  they  can  sustain  themselves  on  the  snow,  by  attach- 
ing to  their  shoes  large  wooden  rackets,  several  feet  in  length, 
while  the  elk  sinks  in  it,  and  is  easily  overtaken.  The  flesh  of  this 
animal  is  said  to  be  light  and  nourishing.  The  Americans  at  the 
north  assert  that  it  contains  more  sustenance  than  that  of  any 
other  animal.  Its  skin  is  excellent  for  shoulder  belts,  and  its 
horns  are  employed  like  those  of  the  stag. 

The  population  consists  almost  exclusively  of  English  Protes- 
tant colonies  ;  however,  some  remnants  of  the  indigenous  tribes  of 
Indians  may  yet  be  seen  there,  vegetating  in  a  half-wild  state, 
wandering  like  the  Bohemians,  whom  they  also  resemble  in  the 
habit  of  stealing  and  carrying  away  children.  Once  initiated  into 
savage  life,  the  sons  of  the  whites  are  lost  to  their  families  and  to 
society ;  and  if  by  chance  recovered,  they  are  no  longer  content 
to  spend  their  lives  in  the  cities  with  their  parents. 

Florida.  —  Florida,  a  large  peninsula,  whose  surface  equals 
nearly  a  fourth  of  France,  projects  from  north  to  south,  between 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  terminating  at  the 
south  in  Cape  Sable,  It  seems  to  be  designed,  like  an  immense 
dike,  to  break  the  first  shock  of  the  famous  Gulf  Stream,  —  which, 
as  we  have  remarked,  attains  at  this  point,  a  speed  of  five  miles 
an  hour,  —  and  thus  to  prevent  its  entering  the  Atlantic  with  irre- 
sistible force. 

Aspect.  —  Florida  is  generally  level,  probably  never  elevated 
more  than  250  or  300  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  southern  part 
of  the  peninsula  is  covered  with  a  large  sheet  of  water,  called  the 
Everglades,  of  an  immense  extent,  filled  with  islands.  The  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  peninsula  is  somewhat  elevated,  the  highest 
point  being  about  170  feet  above  the  sea,  and  gradually  declining 
towards  the  coast  on  each  side.  The  western  portion  of  the  state 
is  level. 

Climate.  —  From  the  relative  number  of  deaths  occurring  annu- 
ally, —  taking  into  account  those  deaths  which  are  owing  not  to 
the  climate,  but  to  the  fact  of  this  state  being  a  great  resort,  at 
least  during  winter,  for  invalids  from  the  north,  —  it  would  appear 
that  Florida  is  among  the  healthiest,  if  not  the  very  healthiest,  of 
the  United  States. 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  893 

The  vegetation  is  very  rich  and  magnificent,  and  the  air  is  em- 
bahned  with  the  perfume  of  flowers  of  such  beautiful  varieties,  that 
one  would  be  led  to  attribute  to  this  circumstance  the  name  of 
the  peninsula,  were  it  not  a  well-known  fact  that  it  was  so  called 
by  the  Spanish  navigator,  Ponce  de  Leon,  in  remembrance  of  the 
day  in  which  he  took  possession  of  it,  which  was  Palm  Sunday, 
(pascua  Jiorida.) 

There  are  found  in  this  country  three  kinds  of  soil,  character- 
ized by  their  vegetable  productions  —  the  jir  plantations,  (whose 
soil,  almost  always  sandy  and  sterile,  furnishes  only  pines,  excel- 
lent for  building  purposes,)  the  savannas,  and  the  marshes.  The 
savannas  form  immense  prairies,  whose  grass,  from  four  to  five 
feet  high,  undulates  like  a  sea  beneath  the  breath  of  the  wind, 
while  a  few  groves  of  trees,  erecting  their  verdant  heads  like  so 
many  small  islands,  refresh  the  eye,  wearied  with  the  monotony 
of  the  landscape.  The  marshes  alone  occupy  more  than  half  of 
the  province.  In  their  stagnant  mud  flourish  rushes  and  gigantic 
reeds ;  their  water  pools  are  hidden  beneath  the  green  and  broad 
leaves  of  the  water  lily ;  and  it  is  a  singular  fact  that  many  spe- 
cies of  full-grown  forest  trees  overshadow  these  incessantly  sub- 
merged soils  —  the  ash,  elm,  laurel,  and  oaks  producing  acorns 
sweet  and  savory  as  our  chestnuts.  Above  them  all,  however, 
towers  the  straight  and  smooth  trunk  of  the  swamp  cypress,  like 
a  column,  100  feet  in  height  and  from  8  to  10  in  diameter,  crowned 
by  a  broad  canopy  of  delicate  leaves,  whilst  numerous  shoots, 
issuing  from  its  roots,  form  round  the  base  a  kind  of  enclosure, 
at  the  top,  of  a  brilliant  red. 

But  to  see  nature  displayed  in  all  its  vegetable  luxuriance,  one 
should  penetrate  into  the  hummocks  interspersed  among  the  pine 
forests  and  marshes.  Here  cedars  and  evergreen  oaks  every 
where  interlace  their  branches  with  those  of  the  magnolias, 
laurels,  &c.,  or  with  the  boughs  of  the  sassafras,  large  and  beau- 
tiful trees,  whose  root  and  bark  are  employed  in  medicine  as  a 
sudorific.  Among  these  trees,  with  their  robust  branches,  the 
palms  balance  their  slender  columns  and  their  broad,  fan-shaped 
leaves.  The  wild  vines  of  the  convolvulus,  whose  trunks  are 
sometimes  a  foot  in  diameter,  bind  together  these  children  of  the 
forest,  running  from  one  to  another,  in  verdant  festoons,  and 
forming  colonnades  without  end,  through  whose  long  arches  the 


k' 


394 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 


rays  of  the  sun  never  penetrate.  Under  these  natural  canopies 
the  more  modest  plants  unfold  themselves.  Here  is  found  the 
wax  tree,  a  shrub  whose  small,  globulous  fruit  is  covered  with  a 
white  substance,  easily  extracted  by  means  of  boiling  water,  and 
of  which,  when  bleached,  wax  tapers  are  made,  that,  in  burning, 
diffuse  an  aromatic  odor.  The  perfidious  Venus' s  Jiy-trap  here 
spreads  its  leaves,  bristling  with  prickly  hairs,  which,  suddenly 


Venus's  Fly-trap. 

closing  on  the  slightest  touch,  pierce  with  a  hundred  darts  the 
imprudent  insect  which  alights  on  them.  By  the  side  of  the  lat- 
ter, the  sarracenia,  or  side-saddle  flower,  erects  its  noble  flower, 
of  a  golden  yellow,  and  its  leaves  disposed  in  the  form  of  a 
pitcher  with  a  lid,  which  is  nearly  half  full  of  water,  a  beverage 
always  cool,  and  which  seems  preordained  by  nature  to  allay  the 
thirst  of  the  traveller. 

Many  of  the  fruit  trees  of  Europe  have  been  naturalized  in 
Florida.  The  orange,  among  others,  is  larger,  of  a  better  flavor, 
and  more  juicy  than  that  of  Portugal.  Maize  is  almost  the  only 
cereal  raised  there.     Vast  plantations  of  tobacco,  sugar  cane,  and 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  395 

especially  of  cotton,  are  cultivated  by  slaves.  It  is  said  that  the 
white  race  could  not  endure  the  miasma  which  a  burning  sun 
develops  amid  the  dampness  of  these  plantations. 

The  animals  of  Florida  are  no  less  remarkable  than  its  vege- 
tables. Myriads  of  birds,  of  brilliant  plumage,  sport  among  its 
trees  and  greenswards.  Flocks  of  turtle  doves,  and  parrots  of 
gaudy  colors,  swarm  on  all  the  bushes.  The  charming  little 
humming  birds,  so  graceful  and  slender,  sparkling  with  the  bril- 
liancy of  rubies,  sapphires,  and  emeralds,  flit  from  flower  to  flower, 
and  seem  to  vie  in  splendor  both  with  the  floral  tribe  and  with 


Humming  Bird. 

the  great  butterflies,  which  dispute  with  them  the  perfumed  juices. 
Their  most  formidable  enemy  is  a  monstrous  spider,  with  a  hairy 
body  and  sharp  pincers,  which  suspends  near  the  nests  of  these 
frail  birds  a  web,  similar  to  yellow  silk,  and  strong  enough  to  im- 
prison these  little  winged  creatures,  or  which  devours  the  eggs 
and  the  young  in  the  absence  of  the  mother,  who,  often  in  her 
turn,  pursues  the  destroyer,  and  makes  it  her  prey.  Along  the 
rivers,  and  on  the  lakes,  numerous  flocks  of  duchs  mingle  with  the 
large-throated  pelican,  the  cormorant  of  the  Floridas,  with  crests 
whiter  than  snow,  and  the  flamingo,  with  its  long  legs  and  neck 
resplendent  with  its  rosy  plumage.  And  while  the  mocking  bird 
repeats  by  turns  the  songs  and  cries  of  these  feathered  tribes,  the 
white-headed  eagle  majestically  soars  in  the  highest  ether. 

Troops  of  deer  traverse  the  deserted  plains.  Sometimes  they 
are  seen  to  fly  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning  before  a  band  of 
famished  wolves,  or  pursued  by  some  jaguar,  with  spotted  skin. 


396  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

The  latter,  which  takes  the  place  of  the  tiger  in  America,  is  gen- 
erally much  less  to  be  feared  than  its  Asiatic  brother.    It  easily 


Bird-catching  Spider. 

climbs  trees,  and  causes  much  mischief  among  cattle ;  but  it  rarely 
attacks  man,  at  least  in  Florida.  Its  fur,  sprinkled  with  black 
rings,  with  a  black  dot  in  the  centre,  is  highly  valued.  Several 
large  species  of  squirrels  skip  from  branch  to  branch,  pursued  by 
wild  cats,  no  less  carnivorous  than  agile ;  their  agility  contrasts 
forcibly  with  the  constrained  and  heavy  movements  of  the  black 
hears,  which  share  with  them  these  aerial  retreats.  Numerous 
serpents  writhe  in  the  grass  beneath  ;  on  the  borders  of  ponds 
resounds  the  voice  of  the  hellowing  frog,  in  notes  almost  as  sono- 
rous as  those  of  a  bull,  and  to  which  the  oJligator,  or  American 
crocodile,  loudly  responds. 

The  population  is  composed  of  whites,  negroes,  and  Indians. 
The  Florida  planter  is  lively,  intelligent,  generous,  and  hospita- 
ble. The  negroes  are  slaves,  employed  in  all  the  severe  labors 
on  the  plantations,  and  are  sometimes  the  victims  of  the  most  bar- 
barous treatment.  The  unfortunate  Seminole  Indians,  who,  in- 
trenched in  their  marshy  forests,  struggle  with  the  energy  of 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  397 

despair  against  tlie  extermination  with  which  they  are  threatened, 
are  vigorous  men,  large  and  well  made,  as  skilful  in  handling  the 
long  carabine  as  the  arrows  and  the  hatchet.  A  few  thousand  of 
them  only  remain,  and  they  will  soon,  undoubtedly,  have  com- 
pletely disappeared  from  the  face  of  that  land  where  their  ances- 
tors long  reigned  without  a  rival. 

Yucatan.  —  The  peninsula  of  Yucatan  projects  from  the 
south-west,  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  between  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  terminates  in  Ca'pe  Catoche. 
At  the  north-west  of  this  peninsula  is  found  the  Bay  of  Cam- 
peachy,  and  at  the  south  that  of  Honduras. 

Aspect.  —  The  country  is  said  to  be  very  flat,  traversed  by  a 
chain  of  hills  of  little  elevation.  It  is  almost  every  where  covered 
with  thick  forests,  and  generally  uncultivated  except  on  the  north- 
western coast,  and  near  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  where  the  English 
have  some  establishments. 

The  climate  is  hot,  dry,  and  salubrious  in  the  interior,  but  ex- 
tremely unhealthy  near  the  coasts,  which  are  low  and  marshy, 
and  whose  stagnant  waters  exhale  dangerous  vapors.  The  rainy 
season  lasts  five  months,  and  nowhere  is  a  more  variable  temper- 
ature to  be  found. 

The  vegetation  is  that  of  the  tropical  countries.  Providence 
has  lavished  upon  these  regions  an  unusual  variety  and  abun- 
dance. The  trees  are  covered  with  the  parasitic  foliage  of  thou- 
sands of  plants.  Here  the  convolvulus  entwines  like  masses  of 
hanging  and  entangled  cordage.  Elsewhere,  they  overleap  tor- 
rents, and  serve  as  natural  bridges  for  travellers  surprised  by  the 
swollen  waters.  Their  garlands  are  almost  always  the  asylum 
of  multitudes  of  parrots,  monkeys,  birds,  and  insects  of  all  kinds, 
which  delight  in  poising  upon  them.  But  woe  betides  him,  who, 
reckless  of  the  jaguars  and  dangers  of  the  dew,  allows  himself  to 
be  benighted  in  these  damp  solitudes. 

All  the  plants  of  the  West  Indies  might  be  cultivated  in  this 
country ;  fruit  trees  grow  wild  in  the  midst  of  the  forests,  where, 
on  every  side,  magnificent  flowers  exhale  the  most  exquisite  per- 
fumes. But  the  only  products  to  which  any  importance  is  at- 
tached are  the  mahogany  and  campeachy  woods. 

The  acajou,  or  mahogany,  is  a  large  and  beautiful  American 
34 


k 


398  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

tree,  whose  trunk  is  often  18  feet  in  circumference,  and  40  in 
height.  Its  wood  is  hard,  susceptible  of  a  fine  poHsh,  impervious 
to  worms,  and  of  a  beautiful  reddish  color  of  various  shades.  It 
is  used  in  cabinet  work  for  all  kinds  of  elegant  furniture. 

The  mahogany  of  Yucatan,  softer  and  less  capable  of  polish 
than  that  of  the  West  India  Islands,  is,  nevertheless,  sold  at  very 
high  prices,  and  is  beginning  to  be  exhausted.  It  is  now  rendered 
very  expensive,  because  it  is  only  to  be  obtained  at  a  great  dis- 
tance from  the  coasts,  by  traversing  forests  where  one  is  often 
obliged  to  make  his  way  hatchet  in  hand.  In  the  month  of 
August,  when  the  mahogany  leaves  assume  a  reddish  hue,  the 
surveyor,  or  principal  workman,  climbs  the  tallest  tree  in  the 
country,  in  order  to  ascertain  from  thence  the  places  where  the 
mahoganies  are  the  most  abundant.  He  then  descends,  clears 
for  himself  a  passage  to  the  trees,  and  as  soon  as  he  has  corrob- 
orated his  discovery,  whistles  to  summon  his  companions,  who 
saw  the  trunk  into  several  pieces  in  order  to  facilitate  its  trans- 
portation, and  afterwards  square  it  in  blocks.  After  this,  they 
are  obliged  to  lay  out  roads,  over  which,  by  means  of  rollers  or 
carts  drawn  by  oxen,  the  logs  of  wood  may  be  transported  to  the 
neai-est  river,  to  be  floated  or  towed  thence  into  the  sea.  The 
solid  mahogany  is  rarely  used  on  account  of  its  great  cost ;  it  is 
generally  sawed  into  very  thin  veneers,  which  serve  for  the  ve- 
neering of  furniture,  whose  surface  thus  presents  all  the  beauty 
of  mahogany,  although  the  ai'ticle  may  be  constructed  of  common 
wood. 

The  logwood  (haematoxylon  campcechicum)  is  furnished  by  a 
thorny  tree,  whose  height  varies  from  40  to  GO  feet.  The  central 
part  of  this  wood  is  of  a  deep  red,  whereas  the  layers  found  next 
the  bark,  and  which  botanists  call  sap  wood,  are  of  a  yellowish  col- 
or, and  are  rejected  as  worthless.  The  logwood  is  exported  from 
America  in  great  logs,  stripped  of  their  sap  wood.  It  is  of  a  deep 
brown,  very  hard,  and  susceptible  of  a  fine  polish.  Although 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  some  articles  of  cabinet  work,  it  is 
principally  employed  in  dyeing  a  brilliant  red,  or  violet  blue.  It 
is  also,  sometimes  used  in  medicine. 

The  animals  are  essentially  those  of  Florida,  and  deserve  little 
mention.     It  appears,  however,  that  tlie  mosquitoes  ai"©  the  most 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  399 

cruel  of  torments,  insomuch  that  their  name  has  been  given  to 
tlie  coast  at  the  south  of  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  (^Mosquito  Coast.) 
"  The  colonist,"  says  a  traveller,  "  must  keep  a  close  watch  over 
his  horse,  otherwise  the  ears  of  the  unfortunate  beast  will  be 
nearly  consumed  by  myriads  of  these  insects ;  if  it  has  a  wounded 
back,  it  must  not  be  sent  into  the  savanna,  for  the  flies  would  so 
madden  it,  that  it  would  inevitably  become  their  prey,  and  be 
devoured  alive." 

The  population  is  composed  of  strong  and  vigorous  Indians, 
athletic  in  form,  but  excessively  indolent,  and  imposing  all  the 
severe  labors  upon  the  women.  These  Indians  descend  from  the 
ancient  Caribs ;  the  colonists  usually  employ  them  as  fishermen 
and  hunters.  They  are  very  partial  to  the  English,  who  have 
founded  establishments  upon  these  coasts  for  procuring  the 
mahogany  and  logwood ;  but  they  detest  the  Spaniards,  their 
ancient  masters,  and  are  continually  at  war  with  them. 

California.  —  The  peninsula  of  Cahfornia  (or  Old  Califor- 
nia) is  a  country  but  little  known,  situated  west  of  the  Gulf  of 
California.  Its  soil  is  one  of  extreme  aridity.  It  contains  no 
rivers,  and  scarcely  any  streams,  and  the  traveller  is  often  obliged 
to  provide  himself  with  water  for  two  or  three  days  in  advance. 

The  climate  is  generally  very  hot,  the  air  exceedingly  dry,  and 
the  purity  of  the  atmosphere  remarkable.  The  sky,  of  a  dark 
blue,  is  scarcely  ever  obscured  by  clouds. 

The  mineral  productions  of  Old  California  appear  to  possess 
none  of  the  importance  of  those  which  have  rendered  the  New  so 
celebrated  throughout  the  whole  world. 

The  vegetable  kingdom  offers  very  few  resources.  Thorny 
plants  and  shrubs,  among  others  enormous  cactuses,  abound  in 
these  sandy  an^  arid  soils.  In  the  rare  spots  where  water  and 
vegetable  earth  are  found,  the  grains  and  fruits  of  Europe  multi- 
ply astonishingly ;  the  vine  yields  a  generous  wine,  similar  to 
that  of  the  Canaries. 

The  aniynals  present  nothing  remarkable. 

The  popidation,  which,  up  to  the  present  time,  has  been  very 
thin,  consists  of  a  small  number  of  whites,  of  Spanish  origin,  and 
of  a  few  Indians,  who  are  subject  to  them,  both  very  indolent,  and 
of  the  Catholic  religion. 


L 


400  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

Russian  America.  —  Russian  America,  with  tlie  peninsula 
of  Aliaska,  is  a  vast  peninsula,  which  extends  towards  the  west 
and  south-west,  between  the  Arctic  Ocean,  Behring's  Strait,  and 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  Although  it  presents  a  considerable  surface, 
this  frigid  country  has  never  possessed  any  other  importance  than 
that  of  having  served,  together  with  the  Aleutian  Islands,  which 
depend  upon  it,  to  establish  natural  relations  between  America 
and  Asia. 

Aspect.  —  Russian  America  exhibits,  on  all  sides,  the  wildest 
and  most  gloomy  aspect.  Above  a  range  of  hills,  covered  with 
pines  and  birches,  rise  barren  mountains  crowned  with  enormous 
masses  of  ice,  which  often  become  detached,  and  descend  with  a 
fearful  crash  into  the  valleys  or  sea.  Beneath  the  pressure  of  a 
similar  mass  forests  are  uprooted,  torn  to  fragments,  and  dis- 
persed to  a  distance.  The  echoes  of  the  shores  reverberate  as 
with  a  thunderbolt,  and  vessels  experience  the  shock. 

Climate.  —  Excessive  cold,  similar  to  that  of  the  north  of 
Siberia,  reigns  on  the  borders  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  of  Behr- 
ing's Strait.  The  climate  of  the  southern  coast,  on  the  contrary, 
has  a  temperature  as  mild  as  that  of  the  coasts  of  Europe  situated 
in  the  same  latitude.  Well  sheltered  from  the  polar  winds  by 
the  high  volcanic  mountains  which  skirt  the  coast  and  traverse 
the  peninsula  of  Aliaska,  this  portion  of  America  is  but  little 
exposed  to  attacks  of  cold  in  winter ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
scarcely  warmer  there  in  summer  than  in  Finland,  or  even  in 
Lapland,  and  the  dampness  is  so  great  that  hay  cannot  be  dried, 
nor  barley  ripened. 

The  vegetation  is  neither  rich  nor  abundant ;  herbage  is  not 
wanting  in  favored  spots ;  cabbages,  turnips,  and  potatoes  thrive 
there  ;  also  certain  wild  fruits  —  among  others,  strawberries  of 
excellent  quality  ;  the  trees  consist  of  firs  and  birches,  and  even 
these  disappear  in  the  most  northern  portions. 

Animals.  —  In  Russian  America,  as  in  the  other  polar  regions, 
the  animal  kingdom  affords  the  inhabitants  their  most  important 
resources.  It  is  indeed  solely  in  consideration  of  the  fur  trade, 
of  the  reindeer  hunt,  and  of  the  capture  of  sea  otters,  seals,  morses, 
and  salmon,  that  colonists  have  established  themselves  in  these 
remote  and  gloomy  regions.    The  morse  hunt  is  one  of  the  most 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  401 

important ;  it  is  carried  on  by  the  natives,  who  afterwards  sell 
the  teeth  which  they  have  collected  to  the  agents  of  the  Russian 
American  Fur  Company.  These  teeth,  or  tusks  of  the  morse, 
equal  in  quality  to  the  ivory  of  the  elephant  itself,  furnish  the 
principal  object  of  commerce  in  these  countries.  No  use  is  made 
of  the  flesh,  fat,  or  skin.  As  these  animals  move  with  difficulty 
on  land,  the  art  of  the  hunters  consists  in  frightening  those  which 
are  already  at  a  little  distance  from  the  shore,  and  driving  them 
farther  into  the  interior,  where  they  soon  become  exhausted,  and 
the  hunters  can  approach  them  without  danger  of  being  over- 
thrown and  crushed.  Then  each  one,  selecting  his  victim,  plunges 
his  lance  into  the  thinnest  part  of  the  skin,  and  endeavors  to  in- 
crease the  wound,  in  order  to  accelerate  the  animal's  death  by 
loss  of  blood. 

The  population  is  composed  of  a  few  thousand  Russians,  or 
descendants  of  Europeans, — who  constitute  the  predominant  por- 
tion —  tribes  of  Esquimaux  towards  the  north,  along  the  coast  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  Indian  tribes,  still  wild,  in  the  forests  of 
the  interior.  These  Indians,  generally  very  squalid,  always  at 
war  with  each  other,  and  some  of  whom  it  has  been  affirmed  are 
cannibals,  prefer  the  hunt  to  the  fishery,  and  find  their  principal 
resource  in  the  reindeer.  However,  during  the  summer  they 
devote  themselves  assiduously  to  the  capture  of  salmon,  prodi- 
gious quantities  of  which,  at  this  season,  ascend  the  current  of  the 
rivers  very  far  into  the  land.  A  small  number  of  these  savages, 
in  more  habitual  contact  with  the  Russian  colonists,  have  become 
Christians,  and  belong  to  the  Greek  church. 

Sect.  4.  Mountains  of  America.  The  Andes.  —  One 
feature  which  distinguishes  America  from  all  other  parts  of  the 
world,  is  a  vast  chain  of  mountains  which  traverses  it  from  north 
to  south,  almost  from  one  extremity  to  the  other.  This  chain 
bears  the  name  of  Andes,  or  Cordilleras,  (  Cordillera  de  los  Andes  ; 
that  is,  chain  of  the  Andes.)  These  mountains  generally  follow 
the  coasts  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Except  those  of  the  Himalaya, 
they  are  the  highest  in  the  world  ;  they  attain  their  most  consid- 
erable elevation  east  of  a  kind  of  recess,  formed  by  the  ocean, 
towards  the  centre  of  the  western  coast  of  South  America,  known 
as  the  Gulf  of  Arica.  There  are  found,  among  others,  the  Nevada, 
34* 


402  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

(snow-clad)  ae  Sorata,  21,290  feet  liigli,  and  the  Nevada  de 
JUimani,  which  attains  21,150  feet.  Farther  north,  nearly  under 
the  equatorial  line,  is  the  Chimborazo,  long  considered  the  liighest 
peak  in  the  world,  but  which  is  in  reality  only  21,424  feet  in 
height  At  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  the  chain  of  the  Andes 
diminishes  to  such  a  degree  as  to  form  only  a  line  of  high  granite 
hills  ;  but  they  soon  rise  again  in  bold  peaks,  and  acquire  in  North 
America  an  elevation  which  nearly  approaches  that  of  Chimbo- 
razo. In  this  part  of  the  continent  they  are  first  designated  by 
the  name  of  Cordilleras ;  farther  north  they  receive  different 
appellations,  to  which  we  shall  hereafter  refer. 

From  one  extremity  to  the  other,  these  mountains  are  inter- 
spersed with  volcanoes  ;  and  nowhere  are  they  so  remarkable  for 
their  deviation  and  the  violence  of  their  eruptions,  America 
contains  more  than  200.  The  shocks  of  earthquakes,  which 
precede  or  accompany  volcanic  eruptions,  are  one  of  the  phe- 
nomena which  cause  the  greatest  consternation  among  the  neigh- 
boring populations  of  the  Andes.  They  often  occur  unexpect- 
edly ;  at  other  times  they  are  announced  by  subterranean  reports, 
hollow  rumblings,  similar  to  remote  discharges  of  artillery.  Do- 
mestic animals  are  then  seized  with  disorders ;  reptiles  issue 
from  their  holes,  birds  are  thrown  into  convulsions,  springs  dry 
up,  and  suddenly,  within  a  few  seconds,  the  earth  gapes  asunder ; 
some  portions  of  the  land  are  ingulfed,  while  othei-s  are  up- 
heaved, and  entire  cities  are  overthrown,  burying  beneath  their 
ruins  thousands  of  inhabitants.  Even  the  sea  furnishes  no 
asylum,  as  vessels  receive  violent  shocks  if  they  are  not  indeed 
swallowed  up. 

Little  less  than  a  century  ago,  (in  1759,)  on  the  plateau  formed 
by  the  two  Mexican  Cordilleras,  where  are  still  found  many  ter- 
rible volcanoes,  always  active,  such  as  the  Orizaba  and  the 
Popocatapetl,  (17,374  and  17,717  feet  in  height,)  there  was  sud- 
denly seen  to  issue  from  the  earth,  in  a  single  night,  a  little 
volcano  of  4114  feet  in  elevation,  surrounded  by  five  others  of 
inferior  height,  which  burst  from  the  ground  at  the  same  time. 
It  bears  the  name  of  Jorullo,  and  is  still  very  active.  The 
formerly  fertile  plain  was  completely  subverted,  and  remained 
bristling  witli  small  basaltic  cones,  from  which  smoke  escaped. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERJCA.  403 

Two  rivulets,  which  were  ingulfed  on  one  of  the  borders  of  this 
uplifted  soil,  reappeared  on  the  opposite  border,  with  a  tempera- 
ture of  62  degrees. 

Thus  upheaved,  and  frequently  convulsed  by  subterranean 
fires  of  extraordinaiy  power,  the  South  American  Andes  have 
preserved  an  extremely  severe  and  striking  aspect,  and  a  sur- 
face bristling  with  mounta-ins,  or  intersected  with  ravines  and 
crevasses,  so  that  communication  and  the  transportation  of  mer- 
chandise are  obstructed  by  incomparable,  if  not  insurmountable 
obstacles.  More  deep  and  narrow  than  those  of  the  Alps  and 
the  Pyrenees,  the  valleys  of  the  Cordilleras  present  the  wild- 
est landscapes,  and  such  as  fill  the  soul  w^ith  admiration  and 
awe.  Fissures  are  often  met  with  of  so  great  a  depth,  that 
Vesuvius  and  the  Puy-de-Dome  might  easily  be  cradled  in  them. 
Others,  on  the  contrary,  are  so  narrow  that  mules,  trained  for 
these  dangerous  journeys,  do  not  hesitate  to  leap  Avitli  their 
rider,  abysses  of  many  hundred  feet  in  depth.  Sometimes  the 
valley,  which  serves  for  a  passage  to  the  high  plateaus  of  the 
interior,  is  only  a  narrow  chasm  between  two  steep  rocks  of 
some  hundred  feet  in  elevation,  and  at  whose  base  falling  rocks 
momentarily  threaten  to  crush  the  traveller.  The  streamlets 
which  descend  from  the  mountains  render  the  paths  so  miry  and 
slippery  that  horses  and  mules  are  constantly  losing  their  footing. 
The  foliage  of  the  trees  which  overshadow  these  passes  is  so 
dense  that  one  traverses  them  almost  in  the  dark ;  and  if  he 
chances  to  encounter  oxen  or  loaded  mules,  he  is  obliged  to  climb 
the  rocky  sides,  clinging  to  plants  or  roots  until  the  animals  have 
passed. 

But  few  stone  bridges  are  constructed  across  these  gorges  or 
tori'ents  of  the  Andes,  their  place  being  supplied  by  cord-line 
biidges,  which  are  also  generally  employed  over  rivers  of  great 
width.  Six  huge  cables  of  twisted  cow-hide  thongs,  or  twigs  of 
vines,  are  thrown  from  one  bank  to  the  otlier  in  such  a  manner 
that  four  of  them  support  the  flooring,  and  the  two  others  consti- 
tute the  hand  rails;  across  the  middle  cables  are  placed  gi'eat 
logs,  covered  with  roots,  branches,  and  leaves.  The  oscillations 
of  such  bridges  render  the  passage  often  perilous,  and  always 
ai)palling,  especially  when  the  traveller  is  obliged  to  lead  by  the 


404  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

bridle  his  refractory  steed.  Other  bridges,  still  more  simple, 
called  huaroSy  consist  merely  of  a  large  cord  suspended  over  the 
precipice ;  the  traveller  places  himself  upon  a  seat,  which,  sliding 
along  the  rope,  is  drawn  from  the  opposite  bank,  or  which  he  him- 
self propels  by  the  aid  of  his  feet  and  hands. 

The  passes,  or  cols,  of  the  Andes  ascend  11,000,  15,000,  and 
16,000  feet,  which  is  much  above  the  peak  of  Mont  Blanc. 
Nothing  can  exceed  the  desolation  of  these  regions,  where  nature 
has  undergone  such  terrible  convulsions.  Dazzling  snow  wearies 
the  eye ;  enormous  masses  of  bare,  perpendicular  rocks,  and 
sombre  abysses  of  unknown  depths,  excite  the  imagination,  while 
the  crashes  of  avalanches  and  the  thunder  of  volcanoes  startle 
the  ear.  On  these  high  plateaus  the  landscape  is  dull  and  lugu- 
brious, the  rays  of  the  sun  pale,  and  the  sky  of  a  dark  blue. 
The  changes  of  weather  are  sudden  and  violent ;  thick  and  rapid 
clouds  sometimes  obscure  the  path ;  one  is  often  obhged  to  pros- 
trate himself  on  the  ground  to  escape  the  violence  of  the  wind, 
and  snow  or  hail  descend  with  irresistible  impetuosity.  During 
five  months,  from  November  to  March,  storms  are  of  almost 
daily  occurrence  in  the  Cordilleras,  commencing  with  astonishing 
regularity  between  two  and  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and 
lasting  until  five  or  five  and  a  half.  The  air  trembles  beneath 
continuous  claps  of  thunder,  a  thousand  times  repeated  by  the 
echoes  of  the  mountains,  and  the  lightning  traces  its  zigzag  course 
on  the  ground,  imprinting  long  furrows  in  the  burned  turf,  or  de- 
stroying in  its  passage,  by  a  single  stroke,  a  string  of  mules  or  a 
whole  flock  of  sheep.  The  traveller,  overtaken  by  these  terrible 
hurricanes,  abandoning  to  its  fate  his  bewildered  steed,  seeks 
refuge  and  shelter  beneath  some  overhanging  rock. 

A  very  singular  phenomenon  of  these  cold  heights  is  produced 
by  the  currents  of  hot  air,  which  descend  from  the  mountains, 
and  are  often  only  200  or  300  feet  in  width,  or  even  less.  Five 
or  six  of  them  were  encountered  in  one  day  by  Dr.  Tschondi, 
during  a  journey  of  two  leagues  ;  at  another  time  he  followed  for 
several  hours  one  of  these  currents,  which  was  only  27  paces  in 
width,  and  whose  temperature  exceeded  that  of  the  surrounding 
atmosphere  by  seven  degrees.     At  considerable  heights  also  the 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  405 

effects  of  the  rarefaction  of  the  air  are  painfully  felt  both  by  men 
and  horses  which  have  not  been  reared  in  these  mountains.  The 
natives  forewarn  one  of  a  malady  which  they  call  puna,  and 
which  produces  nearly  the  same  disagreeable  sensation  as  sea 
sickness.  Men  experience  nausea,  swoon,  and  blood  gushes  from 
their  eyes,  nose,  and  lips,  sometimes  debilitating  them  to  such  a 
degree  that  they  die  in  consequence.  Another  distemper,  no  less 
to  be  dreaded  among  the  Cordilleras,  is  the  surumpe,  a  violent 
inflammation  of  the  eyes,  caused  by  the  reflection  of  the  sun 
upon  the  snow.  "  This,"  says  the  traveller  quoted  above,  "  in- 
duces suffering  comparable  to  that  which  would  be  occasioned  by 
a  handful  of  pepper  thrown  into  the  eyes ; "  the  afflicted  individual 
can  no  longer  travel,  and  utters  cries  of  distress ;  sometimes, 
indeed,  he  is  completely  berefl  of  sight.  When  the  Creoles 
ascend  these  mountains,  they  take  the  precaution  to  provide  them- 
selves with  green  veils,  and  spectacles  of  the  same  color. 

With  a  surface  thus  rent,  and  where  so  many  obstacles  render 
transportation  difficult  and  expensive,  nothing  but  great  riches,  of 
light  bulk,  could  have  invested  with  importance  countries  appar- 
ently so  ill  endowed.  But  it  is  needless  to  inform  my  readers 
with  what  a  lavish  hand  Providence  has  diffused  gold  and  silver 
in  these  mountains ;  for  the  mere  mention  of  Peru,  Mexico,  and 
California  is  sufficient  to  recall  the  incredible  riches  which 
America  has  furnished  to  the  human  race — riches  always  ardently 
coveted  by  most  mortals,  and  which,  in  the  new  world  as  well  as 
in  the  old,  have  constantly  proved  the  source  of  vexation  and 
sorrow.  M.  de  Humboldt,  one  of  the  most  learned  travellers  of 
modern  times,  estimates  the  production  of  the  mines  of  America, 
from  its  discovery  to  the  commencement  of  the  present  century, 
at  about  $1,340,000,000  in  gold,  and  $4,400,000,000  in  silver. 
And  yet  this  is  trifling,  in  comparison  with  what  is  produced  at 
the  present  time  by  the  mines  of  California  and  Australia,  which 
of  late  years  have  multiplied  the  production  of  gold  tenfold. 
The  silver  is  generally  found  on  the  heights,  under  the  snowy 
peaks  of  this  colossal  chain  ;  the  gold  in  the  gorges  which  skirt 
the  foot  of  the  Cordilleras,  in  the  bed  of  the  torrents,  almost  all 
of  which  contain  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  scales  and  grains. 


406  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

The  diversities  of  climate  are  very  marked  in  the  Andes  ;  they 
are  naturally  dependent  upon  the  elevation.  The  torrid  zone,  at 
the  foot  of  the  chain,  experiences  a  perpetual  though  never  ex- 
cessive heat,  which,  combined  with  the  exhalations  of  a  marshy 
soil  and  with  the  effects  of  extreme  dampness,  gives  rise  to  per- 
nicious fevers.  The  temperate  zone  maintains  a  constant  and 
moderate  heat,  like  that  of  a  hothouse.  The  cold  climate^  or 
that  of  the  high  plateaus,  is  characterized,  not  by  the  intensity, 
but  by  the  continuity,  of  the  cold,  the  absence  of  all  excessive 
heat,  and  a  foggy  atmosphere,  which  checks  the  growth  of  large 
vegetables. 

The  vegetation  also  presents  a  certain  number  of  distinct 
phases,  coiTesponding  to  the  difference  of  climate.  First,  the 
region  of  palm  trees,  of  various  species,  among  which  we  shall 
only  designate  the  wax  palm,  from  whose  internodes  exudes  a 
grayish-white  substance,  a  species  of  wax,  which  is  used  in  the 
country.  Higher  up,  above  3000  feet,  is  the  region  of  the  arbo- 
rescent ferns,  which,  in  most  climates,  though  only  humble  plants, 
in  these  countries  attain  the  size  of  trees.  There  are  likewise 
granadillas,  or  passion  flowers,  so  called  on  account  of  the  resem- 
blance which  has  been  discovered  between  some  of  their  parts  — 
stamens,  pistils,  &c.  —  and  the  nails,  hammers,  and  other  instru- 
ments, which  were  employed  in  the  passion  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ ;  they  are  usually  creeping  plants,  but  in  the  Andes  cer- 
tain varieties  acquire  the  dimensions  of  our  oaks.  To  this  same 
region  of  the  Andes  appertains  one  of  the  most  precious  vegeta- 
bles of  America,  the  cinchona,  a  tree  whose  bark,  administered  in 
a  powder,  decoction,  or  otherwise,  has,  within  200  years,  rendered 
to  medicine  services  of  increasing  importance,  both  as  2l  febrifuge, 
for  counteracting  all  kinds  of  fevers,  and  as  a  tonic,  in  cases 
where  the  system  requires  stimulating.  The  cinchona  is  dis- 
tinguished by  many  species  -^  the  red,  yellow,  orange,  gray,  and 
white,  besides  the  Jesuits'  baric,  which  has  also  its  principal 
properties.  Some  of  these  species  consist  of  trees  from  75  to  90 
feet  in  height.  But  little  use  is  made,  at  the  present  time,  of 
the  bark  of  the  cinchona  in  its  native  state,  chemistry  having 
enabled  us  to  extract  the  two  essential  principles  which  possess 
all  its  salutary  properties,  and  one  of  which,  the  quinine,  is  now 


THE  CONTINENT  OP   AMERICA.  407 

almost  solely  in  use.  Higher  yet,  even  at  a  height  of  from  6000 
to  8700  feet,  is  found  the  region  of  maize,  oats,  and  wheat ; 
beyond  this  height  the  principal  article  of  cultivation  is  the 
potato;  above  12,000  feet  all  cultivation  ceases.  This  is  the 
region  of  the  gentians  and  Alpine  plants  ;  after  which  comes 
that  of  the  gramineal  plants  ;  and  lastly  that  of  the  mosses  and 
lichens,  which  extend  even  to  the  limit  of  the  eternal  snows. 
Thus,  as  one  ascends  from  the  base  to  the  hi«yhest  summit  of  the 


Cinchona. 

Cordilleras,  he  encounters  the  same  phases  of  vegetation  as  when 
he  advances  from  the  equator  to  the  frigid  plains  of  Lapland,  so 
general  and  constant  is  the  influence  of  the  climate. 

Like  the  plants,  the  animals  do  not  live  indiscriminately  on  all 
the  heights  of  the  Andes.  Passing  over  those  which  are  found 
elsewhere,  we  shall  specify  only,  as  animals  characteristic  of  the 
highest  summits  of  the  chain,  at  least  in  South  America,  the 
lamas  and  the  condors. 

The  lamas  are,  in  the  new  world,  the  representatives  of  the 
camel,  whose  principal  characteristics  they  possess ;  but  they 
differ  from  the  latter  in  their  more  slender  forms,  their  compara- 
tively .small  size,  the  absencQ  of  £t  hump  on  the  back,  and  in  the 


k 


408  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

separation  of  their  toes ;  for  while  an  all-wise  Providence  has 
endowed  the  "  ship  of  the  desert "  with  broad  feet,  to  prevent  its 
sinking  in  the  moving  sandsyit  has  provided  the  small  cloven  foot 
of  the  lama  with  too  hooked  claws,  of  which  it  avails  itself  in  a 
marvellous  manner  in  clinging  to  the  steepest  acclivities  of  the 
mountains. 


Lama. 

This  animal,  of  the  size  of  a  small  horse,  was  the  only  beast  of 
burden  employed  by  the  mountaineers  of  South  America  at  the 
time  of  the  discovery  of  this  portion  of  the  continent,  and  it  still 
constitutes  the  wealth  of  the  Indian.  Its  milk  and  flesh,  especially 
that  of  the  young  lamas,  furnish  him  with  nourishment ;  its  wool 
serves  to  clothe  him,  and  is  also  converted  into  ropes  of  some 
value ;  tlie  skin  is  extremely  useful  in  saddlery ;  the  excrements 
of  the  lama  are  also  made  available  as  fuel  on  the  high  plateaus, 
which  are  deficient  in  wood.  These  animals  have  so  sure  a  foot, 
that  they  can  safely  traverse  the  borders  of  precipices  where 
mules  would  be  in  danger  of  falling ;  they  thus  render  inestima- 
ble services  in  these  countries,  intersected  by  mountains  and 
ravines.  They  are  employed  in  the  transportation  of  all  kinds 
of  commodities  and  provisions ;  their  progress,  however,  is  very- 
slow  ;  they  can  accomplish  only  4  or  5  leagues  a  day,  and  after 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  409 

3  or  4  days'  travel,  require  a  rest  of  24  hours  at  least.  Their 
burden,  moreover,  must  scarcely  exceed  75  or  100  pounds; 
otherwise  they  lie  flat  on  the  ground,  refuse  to  rise,  and  if  beaten, 
strike  their  heads  against  the  rocks,  and  kill  themselves.  They 
are,  however,  perfectly  inoffensive,  and  their  sole  mode  of  defence 
consists  in  spitting  at  those  who  maltreat  them.  They  are  said 
to  be  very  docile  and  extremely  sober ;  hay  and  grass  suffice  for 
their  entire  nourishment,  and  they  can  pass  several  days  without 
drinking,  because,  like  the  camel,  they  have  an  internal  supply 
of  water. 

The  above  description  applies  particularly  to  the  domestic 
lama ;  but  there  are,  as  it  appears,  three  other  species,  which  it  is 
important  not  to  confound  :  1.  The  guanaco^  or  wild  lama,  living 
in  numerous  troops,  near  the  region  of  eternal  snows,  as  wild  and 
as  agile  as  the  chamois :  the  color  of  its  hair  is  generally  brown. 
2.  The  alpaca,  smaller  than  the  former,  and  whose  body  is 
covered  with  a  wool  longer  and  no  less  fine  and  soft  than  the 
richest  fleeces  of  the  Cashmere  goat :  thus  it  has  long  been  used 
for  the  finest  fabrics,  especially  in  England,  and  the  French  are 
seriously  considering  the  means  of  acclimating  this  valuable  ani- 
mal in  the  Pyrenees  or  in  the  Alps.  3.  The  vigonas,  which  are 
frequently  confounded  with  the  preceding  species,  also  yield  a 
fleece  which  in  fineness  surpasses  all  known  wools ;  unfortu- 
nately, the  number  of  these  animals  is  rapidly  diminishing,  the 
natives  pursuing  them  untiringly,  even  to  the  heart  of  their 
snowy  retreats,  where  they  entrap  entire  flocks  in  their  snares. 
The  attempt  to  reduce  them  to  a  domestic  state  has  never 
succeeded. 

The  condor  is  the  largest  of  the  birds  of  prey.  It  frequents 
the  highest  summits  of  the  Andes,  and  builds  its  nest  at  a  height 
of  15,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  M.  de  Humboldt,  in 
ascending  the  peaks  of  Chimborazo,  has  seen  it  hovering  in  a 
circle  at  a  height  of  22,000  feet.  At  certain  periods,  however, 
these  birds  descend  in  troops  into  the  plains,  and  even  to  the 
borders  of  the  sea,  in  order  to  feast  on  the  carcasses  of  dead 
whales. 

Although  the  body  of  this  vulture  is  no  larger  than  that  of  a 
sheep,  its  extended  wings  often  measure  as  much  as  15  feet  from 
35 


L 


410  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

one  extremity  to  the  other,  and  it  seems  to  sport  amid  the  tem- 
pests of  the  air.  Its  plumage  is  black,  the  skin  of  its  head  of  a 
hideous  aspect ;  this  is  shrivelled,  as  likewise  a  part  of  its  neck, 
and  covered  with  thin,  black  hair ;  a  necklace  of  beautiful  white 
down  separates  it  from  the  feathered  portion  of  the  neck.  The 
beak  of  the  condor  is  terrible ;  its  talons  are  powerful,  but  not 
sufficiently  so  to  enable  it  to  carry  off  cattle,  as  some  travellers 
have  affirmed.  This  bird  seeks  new-born  animals,  which  it  kills 
and  devours,  if  the  mother  does  not  maintain  a  vigilant  watch. 
If  the  game  is  tempting,  and  its  attainment  difficult,  —  if,  for  ex- 
ample, a  calf  is  the  object  of  pursuit,  —  several  condors  unite  in 
the  undertaking.  It  does  not  appear  that  their  audacity  ever  leads 
them  to  defy  man,  although  they  are  perfectly  competent  to  carry 
off  children  from  ten  to  twelve  years  of  age.  In  order  to  rid 
themselves  of  these  terrible  enemies,  the  farmers  who  raise  cattle 
are  in  the  habit  of  depositing  the  flayed  body  of  a  horse  upon  an 
eminence,  surrounded  by  an  enclosure  of  stakes,  where  they  con- 
ceal themselves  under  a  shed  covered  with  branches.  As  soon 
as  the  prey  begins  to  putrefy,  the  condors,  attracted  from  a  dis- 
tance by  the  odor,  approach  and  hover  over  the  enclosure,  hesi- 
tating between  fear  and  desire.  At  length  one  of  them  alights 
on  the  prey,  and  is  followed  by  all  the  rest ;  the  door  is  then  gently 
closed,  and  thenceforth  all  these  voracious  creatures,  gorged  with 
tbod,  are  unable  to  quit  this  charnel  house.  In  order  to  resume 
their  flight,  they  must  necessarily  run  a  few  paces,  which  they  are 
prevented  from  doing  by  the  stakes ;  the  door  of  the  enclosure  is 
afterwards  opened,  and  as  they  issue,  one  by  one,  they  are  slain 
in  the  passage. 

Rocky  Mountains.  —  The  northern  continuation  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras, from  its  commencement  at  the  point  where  the  two  prin- 
cipal Mexican  chains  unite,  as  far  as  the  Arctic  Ocean,  bears  the 
name  of  Rochy  Mountains,  and  is  distinguished  in  a  very  marked 
manner  from  all  the  rest  of  this  great  chain.  This  range,  of  a 
severe  and  sombre  aspect,  is  still  an  object  of  veneration  to  the 
natives,  who  consider  it  the  residence  of  the  Great  Spirit,  and 
there  locate  the  blissful  hunting  grounds,  their  imaginary  para- 
dise, where  the  souls  of  the  good  and  brave  will  be  suffered  to 
chase  eternally  inexhaustible  herds  of  buffaloes,  elks,  and  stags. 


THE  CONTINENT  0^  AMERICA.  411 

These  mountains,  isolated  on  the  right  and  left  from  the  rest 
of  America  by  immense  sandy  and  arid  plains,  complete  deserts, 
almost  entirely  destitute  of  vegetation,  are  themselves  covered 
with  very  fine  forests,  consisting  principally  of  magnificent  pines, 
whose  perfectly  straight  trunks  rise  to  200  feet  in  height,  while 
their  cones  contain  kernels  which  are  considered  very  savory. 
Although  these  woods  are  very  beautiful,  they  are  not  of  the  first 
quality.  Certain  animals  are  found  only  in  this  region,  as  the 
black-tailed  staffs  with  long  ears,  and  much  larger  than  the  ordi- 
nary stag,  but  whose  flesh  is  not  as  highly  esteemed;  and  the 
big-horn,  or  mountain  sheep,  a  species  of  mufl[lon,  or  argali,  of 
the  size  of  a  large  stag,  of  a  tawny  color,  and  chiefly  remarkable 
for  its  enormous  horns,  shaped  like  those  of  the  ram ;  these  ani- 
mals possess  all  the  habits  of  the  chamois,  inhabiting  the  highest 
peaks,  browsing  on  the  grass  on  the  borders  of  precipices,  and 
leaping  from  rock  to  rock  with  the  greatest  agility.  These  moun- 
tains, and  those  of  California,  are  the  principal  retreat  of  the 
grizzly  bear,  the  most  formidable  quadruped  of  North  America. 
It  is  as  large  as  a  common-sized  cow,  of  prodigious  strength,  and 
often  attacks  man  without  provocation ;  in  all  cases  it  becomes  furi- 
ous when  wounded,  and  unfortunate  then  is  the  horse  or  rider  that 
falls  into  its  terrible  claws,  which  are  sometimes  nine  inches  in 
length,  and  tear  in  pieces  every  thing  which  comes  in  their  way. 

Compared  with  the  imposing  chain  of  the  Andes,  all  the  other 
mountains  of  America  appear  insignificant  and  unimportant. 
They  are,  moreover,  very  few  in  number. 

Appalachian,  or  Alleghany  Mountains.  —  The  next 
mountain  system  in  North  America,  which  merits  our  attention, 
is  that  of  the  Appalachian,  or  Alleghany  Mountains,  stretching 
from  north-east  to  south-west,  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to 
that  of  Mexico,  over  a  length  of  600  leagues  and  a  breadth  of 
50.  These  mountains,  which  are  composed  of  several  parallel 
chains,  bear  a  great  number  of  names :  White  Mountains  and 
Green  Mountaiyis  in  New  England;  Blue  Ridge,  Alleghany, 
Laurel,  and  Cumberland,  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States. 
All  are  of  little  elevation ;  and  Black  Mountain,  in  North  Caro- 
lina, is  the  highest  of  their  peaks,  being  6476  feet  in  height;  and 
Mount  Washington,  in  New  Hampshire,  is  6226  feet. 


412  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

Mines  of  gold  and  avjriferous  sandsy  of  considerable  impor- 
tance, are  worked  in  the  Blue  Mountains ;  but  the  great  and 
essential  sources  of  wealth  derived  from  the  Appalachians  are, 
besides  the  forests,  inexhaustible  mines  of  coal  and  iro7i.  Each 
of  their  valleys  may  be  considered  a  coal  basin ;  thus  this  com- 
bustible, which  is  of  excellent  quality,  is  furnished  at  a  very 
reasonable  rate.  The  forests  contain  many  species  of  vegetables, 
of  which  we  shall  mention  only  the  most  remarkable.  Thus  a 
variety  of  oak,  called  quercitron^  possesses  in  its  bark  a  yellow 
coloring  principle,  which  can  be  applied  to  wool,  silk,  or  paper. 
This  bark,  which  contains  much  tannin,  is  also  employed  in  the 
preparation  of  leather.  Among  the  ornamental  trees  of  these 
forests  should  be  named  the  tulip  tree,  a  large  and  beautiful  tree, 
whose  greenish-yellow  flowers  resemble  tulips ;  its  bark  and  root, 
which  are  bitter  and  very  aromatic,  are  regarded  in  medicine 
as  tonic  and  febrifuge,  and  are  sometimes  substituted  for  the 
cinchona.  The  most  magnificent  of  all  the  trees  of  the  Allegha- 
nies  is  the  magnolia,  which  combines  majesty  of  bearing  and 
beauty  of  foliage  with  the  magnitude  and  abundance  of  its  flow- 
ers. It  sometimes  shoots  to  a  height  of  a  hundred  feet  and 
more  ;  its  straight  and  smooth  trunk  terminates  in  a  beautiful  con- 
ical peak;  its  large  flowers,  of  the  purest  white,  and  in  form 
similar  to  roses,  diffuse  an  agreeable  but  very  powerful  perfume ; 
they  are  succeeded  by  a  crimson  cone,  which,  unclosing,  displays, 
suspended  by  delicate  threads,  round  seeds,  of  the  most  beautiful 
coral  red.  The  bark  of  the  magnolia,  like  that  of  the  tulip  tree, 
is  often  employed  as  an  antidote  to  fevers,  under  the  name  of 
Virginia  cinchona.  Although  this  is  essentially  an  oraamental 
tree,  now  naturalized  in  many  foreign  parks  and  gardens,  it 
also  furnishes  an  excellent  wood  used  in  cabinet  work. 

The  Cordillera  of  Venezuela.  —  The  Cordillera  of 
Venezuela,  or  of  Caraccas,  is  a  continuation  of  the  Andes,  running 
along  the  coast  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  extending  from  south- 
west to  north-east.  It  is  of  little  elevation,  and  admits  almost 
every  where  of  the  industry  of  the  cultivator.  Upon  arriving  at  a 
certain  height,  one  enjoys  the  freshness  of  perpetual  spring.  The 
rainy  season  lasts  from  November  until  April ;  during  the  six 
following  months  rain  is  rare,  and  the  drought  sometimes  very 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  413 

severe.  Thus,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  the  population  liter- 
ally pass  the  greater  part  of  their  time  in  the  water  during  the 
hot  season.  Whole  companies,  very  lightly  clothed,  establish 
themselves  in  the  middle  of  the  river,  on  chairs  arranged  in  a 
circle.  There,  with  the  water  up  to  their  breasts,  they  smoke 
and  drink  lemonade,  which  is  gravely  handed  by  negroes ;  and 
conversation  is  often  prolonged  until  morning,  sometimes,  although 
rarely,  interrupted  by  the  apparition  of  some  importunate  croco- 
dile. Frequent  and  terrible  earthquakes  are  the  principal  scourge 
of  this  country.  The  forests  which  clothe  these  mountains  are 
capable  of  supplying  for  centuries  the  largest  timber  yards  ;  but 
the  nature  of  the  soil  renders  it  difficult  to  profit  by  these  woods, 
many  of  which  are  valuable  for  dyeing  and  inlaid  work.  Medici- 
nal drugs  are  obtained  thence ;  among  others,  cinchona  (of  infe- 
rior quality)  and  sarsaparilla.  This  latter  substance  is  the  root 
of  climbers  and  evergreen  shrubs,  which  grow  in  these  coun- 
tries. It  is  particularly  renowned  as  a  sudorific.  These  roots 
are  of  the  size  of  a  quill,  of  about  two  feet  in  length,  gray  or 
reddish,  with  a  fluted  and  somewhat  shrivelled  bark.  There  are 
many  varieties. 

The  Parima  Mountains.  —  The  Parima  Mountains  consist 
of  an  irregular  group  of  chains  extending  from  west  to  east,  in 
Venezuela  and  Guiana.  They  are  but  little  known.  Mount 
Maravaca  is  10,500  feet  in  height,  and  is  the  highest  point.  They 
are  almost  entirely  covered  with  thick  forests,  which  are  composed 
principally  of  hard  woods,  whilst  the  low  lands  yield  only  soft 
wood.  Of  108  species  of  useful  woods  which  exist  in  Guiana, 
may  be  mentioned,  among  others,  the  acajou^  the  letter  wood,  a 
large  tree  so  called  on  account  of  the  form  of  the  black  spots  with 
which  it  is  internally  covered,  and  of  which  canes  and  stems  of 
pipes  are  made,  remarkable  for  their  fine  polish ;  the  satin  wood, 
of  brilliant  colors,  very  much  employed  in  mosaic  work ;  the 
violet  ebony  wood,  of  a  beautiful  dark  brown  color,  and  fragrant 
odor,  particularly  suitable  for  inlaid  work ;  the  amaranthine  wood, 
of  a  purple  red,  and  which  serves  the  same  purposes  as  the  pre- 
ceding ;  the  rose  wood,  the  violet  wood,  and  many  others  beside. 

But  a  more  important  production  of  these  mountains  and  the 
neighboring  countries  is  the  caoutchouc,  or  India  rubber  the 
35* 


414  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

elastic  gum  of  a  great  tree.  When  the  trunk  of  this  tree  is 
pierced,  there  exudes  from  it,  in  great  abundance,  a  white,  lacteous 
juice,  which,  on  becoming  solid,  constitutes  the  caoutchouc.  In 
moulding  this  material  for  exportation,  several  layers  of  liquid 
juice  are  poured  over  clay  moulds,  which  are  generally  in  the 
shape  of  pears.  Its  brown  color  is  imparted  to  it  by  the  smoke, 
to  which  it  is  exposed  in  drying.  As  soon  as  it  has  obtained  the 
desired  consistency,  the  mould  is  broken  and  the  fragments  are 
shaken  out  through  the  aperture  reserved  for  this  purpose.  The 
caoutchouc  is  a  very  useful  material.  It  is  the  most  flexible  and 
elastic  of  any  known  substance,  and  its  tenacity  is  such  that  it  is 
only  by  the  use  of  great  force  that  it  can  be  broken.  It  is  now 
employed  not  only  for  effacing  pencil  marks,  but  also  for  man- 
ufacturing probes  and  other  instruments  of  surgery,  braces, 
girdles,  elastic  cushions,  portable  life-boats,  overshoes,  &c.  When 
made  into  a  varnish,  it  is  used  for  smearing  cloth,  which  is  thus 
rendered  impervious  to  moisture,  and  may  be  converted  into  gar- 
ments. The  consumption  of  this  article  is  immense,  and  is  annu- 
ally increasing. 

Mountains  of  Brazil.  —  The  Mountains  of  Brazil  are 
composed  of  many  chains,  but  very  little  known,  the  principal  of 
which  follows  the  south-eastern  coast  of  South  America,  bearing 
the  names  of  Serra  do  Espinhago  at  the  north,  and  of  Serra  do 
Mar  (or  maritime  chain)  at  the  south.  Near  their  point  of  junc- 
tion, at  the  peak  of  Itacolumi,  (5750  feet,)  a  third  chain  becomes 
detached,  which,  proceeding  towards  the  north-west,  then  towards 
the  south-west,  serves  as  a  line  of  separation  to  the  great  rivers 
of  this  part  of  America,  under  the  names  of  Serra  Negra  and 
Seri^a  dos  Vertentes. 

These  mountains,  at  least  those  of  the  eastern  chain,  were  for- 
merly covered  with  magnificent  virgin  forests,  where  man  could 
scarcely  clear  for  himself  a  passage.  But  the  fatal  practice  of 
burning  instead  of  clearing  them,  when  it  is  proposed  to  devote  a 
portion  to  cultivation,  has  caused  such  a  diminution  in  the  quantity 
of  wood,  that,  in  certain  quarters  of  the  mining  district,  extreme- 
ly productive  mines  of  iron  have  been  necessarily  abandoned  for 
want  of  fuel,  or  the  means  of  transporting  it  from  neighboring 
countries. 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  415 

The  principal  sources  of  wealth  of  these  mountainous  regions 
are  the  diamond  mines,  which  are  found  principally  in  the 
central  portion  of  the  eastern  chain,  and  in  that  of  the  slopes. 
The  diamonds  of  Brazil  are  considered  less  brilliant  and  less 
hard  than  those  of  the  East  Indies,  but  they  are  more  abundant. 
They  are  often  found  in  wholly  uncultivated  districts,  some  por- 
tions of  which  do  not  even  produce  grass.  These  diamonds  are 
usually  very  small.  They  are  generally  mixed  with  sand  in  the 
bed  of  the  rivers,  and  in  order  to  procure  them,  the  earth  which 
is  supposed  to  contain  them  is  subjected  to  several  successive 
washings.  Formerly  the  exploration  of  diamonds  was  a  monop- 
oly of  the  government,  which  circumstance  gave  rise  to  many 
fraudulent  and  contraband  proceedings.  It  is  now  abandoned  to 
any  one  who  chooses  to  risk  in  it  his  time  and  money.  These 
painful  labors  are  usually  performed  by  negro  slaves,  for  the  ben- 
efit of  their  masters.  Many  of  the  miners  are  ruined,  as  it  is  a 
very  uncertain  enterprise ;  those  who  profit  by  it  are  the  mer- 
chants who  advance  to  the  workmen  articles  of  primal  necessity, 
in  exchange  for  their  future  discoveries.  The  slaves  have  the 
privilege  of  laboring  on  their  own  account  on  Sundays  and  holi- 
days, and  it  has  been  remarked  that  on  those  days  the  finest 
discoveries  are  always  made.  The  inhabitants  of  these  countries 
are  also  occupied  with  gold  washings,  which  sometimes  yield  con- 
siderable revenues. 

Sect.  5.  Plateaus  and  Declivities  of  America.  — 
America  includes  a  considerable  number  of  high  countries.  Some 
are  actual  plateaus,  situated  at  considerable  heights ;  others  pos- 
sess rather  the  character  of  terraces  or  grades  :  such  is  the  case 
with  the  first  to  which  we  shall  invite  your  attention,  commencing 
at  the  southern  extremity  of  South  America. 

Terraces  of  Chili.  —  Chili,  west  of  the  Chilian  Andes, 
forms  a  long  and  narrow  strip  of  land,  almost  entirely  isolated 
from  the  rest  of  America  by  the  majestic  chain  of  the  Andes, 
high,  snowy,  volcanic,  and  presenting  a  difficult  passage  even  in 
summer.  Its  snows  and  sudden  tempests  cause  many  travellers 
to  perish.  There  are  no  less  than  16  volcanoes,  whose  activity 
is  even  less  dreaded  from  their  eruptions  than  from  the  earth- 
quakes to  which  they  give  rise,  and  which  have  more  than  once 


416  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

overthrown  whole  cities.  Mount  Aconcagua,  23,910  feet  in 
height,  is  the  loftiest  summit  in  South  America. 

Aspect.  —  Viewed  in  a  general  manner,  Chili  may  be  regarded 
as  a  vast  inclined  plain,  sloping  gradually  from  a  height  of  16,000 
to  20,000  feet  down  to  the  sea,  over  a  space  of  more  than  30 
leagues.  But,  upon  a  more  critical  examination,  it  is  found  to 
contain  three  chains  of  parallel  mountains,  separated  by  succes- 
sive plateaus,  or  by  a  series  of  gigantic  terraces,  clothed  with  the 
most  luxuriant  vegetation,  and  watered  by  numerous  streams, 
which  are  skilfully  diverted  for  purposes  of  irrigation. 

The  climate  of  Chili  is  the  most  salubrious  and  agreeable  in 
the  world.  Nowhere,  it  is  said,  could  be  found  so  equal  and 
agreeable  a  temperature.  But  as  this  country  is  situated  south 
of  the  equator,  its  autumn  corresponds  with  our  spring,  and  its 
summer  with  our  winter. 

Minerals  abound.  Silver  mines  are  found  there,  and  gold  is 
obtained  by  washing ;  but  copper  is  the  most  important  metal, 
lumps  of  which  have  been  found  ©f  from  50  to  100  quintals,  and 
Chili  may  be  considered  one  of  the  richest  copper  deposits  in  the 
whole  world.  Mines  of  pit  coal  are  daily  acquiring  more  value, 
and  will  hereafter  render  great  services. 

Vegetables.  —  The  soil  is  of  marvellous  fertility.  The  cultiva- 
tions of  both  hemispheres  succeed  equally  there.  In  the  interior 
wheat  often  yields  a  hundred  fold,  and  nearer  the  coast,  seventy 
fold.  Maize  prospers  no  less.  The  finest  hemp  of  America, 
equal  to  that  of  Europe,  is  cultivated  in  Chili,  on  a  great  scale ; 
in  the  southern  provinces  jlax  is  an  indigenous  plant.  All  the 
fruits  of  Southern  Europe,  introduced  mto  this  country  by  the 
Spaniards,  have  succeeded  to  perfection  ;  peaches  are  seen  there 
of  as  much  as  a  pound's  weight,  and  apples  as  large  as  the  head. 
The  largest  and  most  esteemed  varieties  of  strawberries  multiply 
in  such  abundance  that  throughout  South  America  this  excellent 
fruit  is  commonly  denominated  the  fruit  of  Chili.  This  is  almost 
the  only  country  of  the  new  world  where  the  vine  yields  wine  of 
undoubted  excellence.  The  forests  are  superb,  containing  the 
most  elegant  varieties  of  evergreen  trees ;  the  pine  of  Chili, 
which  attains  to  240  feet ;  the  cypress,  the  laurel,  the  cedar,  and 
several  species  of  oaks  and  hard  woods,  very  much  sought  for 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA. 


417 


ship  and  house  building.  In  certain  places  the  grass  is  said  to 
conceal  the  cattle  in  the  prairies.  Nor  should  we  forget  that 
Chili  was  the  native  country  of  the  potato,  now  diffused  through- 
out the  world ;  it  grew  wild  at  a  little  distance  from  the  sea  shore, 
but  by  cultivation  and  pains  it  has  been  made  to  succeed  at  a 
height  of  13,000  feet ;  the  Spaniards  first  introduced  it  into 
Europe. 

Animals.  —  The  inhabitants  of  this  favored  country  are  neither 
annoyed  by  dangerous  reptiles  nor  venomous  insects  ;  large  beasts 
of  prey  are  also  unknown  there.  All  our  domestic  animals  have 
thriven  wonderfully :  the  Chilian  horses  are  superior  to  all  the 
other  breeds  of  America ;  the  oxen  are  larger  and  stronger  than 
those  of  Spain  ;  excellent  cheese  is  manufactured  from  the  milk 
of  the  cows  ;  the  wool  of  the  sheep  is  esteemed  on  account  of  its 
fineness  and  length.  Guanacos,  lamas,  and  vigones  exist  there  in 
considerable  numbers,  and  the  condor  builds  its  nest  on  the  high- 
est summits  of  the  Andes.  Among  the  animals  peculiar  to  this 
country,  the  two  following  may  be  mentioned  as  somewhat  re- 
markable.    One  of  them,  the  chlamypkoruSy  is  a  species  of  mole, 


Chlamyjohortis. 


which  derives  its  name  from  a  kind  of  hard,  scaly  cuirass,  with 
little  divisions  similar  to  paving  stones,  which  extends  from  the 
top  of  its  head  to  its  tail ;  the  under  part  of  the  body  is  covered 


418 


THE  GEOGRAPHY   OF  NATURE. 


with  white,  soft,  and  silky  hair.  This  animal,  with  much  agility, 
digs  itself  a  burrow,  composed  of  long  galleries,  after  the  manner 
of  the  mole,  by  all  of  whose  habits  it  is  characterized.  While 
rearing  its  young,  it  carries  them  under  the  outskirts  of  its  scaly 
shell.  Another  charming  animal,  the  chinchilla,  is  distinguished 
for  the  beauty  of  its  fur,  which  is  highly  appreciated  by  European 
ladies.  It  is  a  little  rodent  somewhat  larger  than  the  squirrel, 
whose  fore  paws  are  shorter  than  the  hind  ones.  The  chinchillas 
live  in  holes  under  ground,  possess  social  dispositions,  and  are 
fond  of  being  caressed ;  they  are  very  neat,  and  communicate  no 
bad  odor.  They  are  hunted  with  dogs  trained  to  catch  them 
without  damaging  their  precious  coat.  From  1828  to  1832  no 
less  than  18,000  chinchilla  skins  were  sold  in  London.     Very 


Chinchilla. 


little  of  this  fur  is  now  exported  to  France,  but  it  is  not  so  much 
out  of  vogue  in  England.  Formerly,  it  appears  that  the  natives 
of  these  regions,  more  ingenious  than  those  of  the  present  time, 
were  skilled  in  manufacturing  cloth  of  the  ng  and  silky  hair  of 
this  animal 


THE    CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  419 

The  population  is  mostly  white,  and  of  Spanish  origin,  with  a 
certain  number  of  Indians  and  Mestizoes,  all  Catholics.  The 
Chilians  of  the  white  race  are  large  and  robust,  more  active  than 
the  other  Creoles,  lovers  of  liberty,  and  have  made  greater  prog- 
ress, generally,  than  all  the  Spanish  Americans.  At  the  extreme 
south  of  Chili  dwell  the  Araucanians,  brave  and  intelligent  na- 
tives, who  live  in  large  villages,  enact  laws,  and  enjoy  a  regular 
government.  Full  of  generosity  and  courage,  proud  and  indus- 
trious, they  are  considered  the  most  civilized  indigenous  nation 
of  the  new  world.  They  have,  indeed,  not  only  blacksmiths  and 
carpenters,  but  also  goldsmiths,  surgeons,  physicians,  and  poets. 
They  are  but  little  occupied  with  agriculture,  yet  their  cattle  con- 
stitute their  principal  wealth.  They  raise  immense  numbers 
of  horses  and  oxen ;  being  skilful  riders,  and  resembling  the 
Tartars  of  Central  Asia,  they  make  incursions  into  Chili,  where 
they  commit  robbery  and  every  species  of  depredation. 

Plateaus  of  Bolivia.  —  The  plateau  of  Upper  Peru,  prop- 
erly so  called,  situated  between  two  parallel  chains  of  the  Andes, 
east  of  the  Gulf  of  Arica,  is,  next  to  Thibet,  the  highest  country 
in  the  world,  being  more  than  1 2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea ;  and  there,  east  of  Lake  Titicaca,  are  found  the  two  lofty 
peaks  of  Nevada  de  Sorata  and  Nevada  de  Illimani.  The  high 
country  known  under  the  name  of  Bolivia  includes,  also,  besides 
this  plateau,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  region  of  the  Andes, 
and  presents  terraces  and  secondary  plateaus  of  much  less  ele- 
vation. 

The  aspect  of  all  these  plateaus  is  generally  arid,  gloomy,  and 
cold ;  the  winds  which  descend  from  the  Cordilleras  incessantly 
sweep  these  immense  open  plains,  and  check  the  development 
of  vegetation.  But  in  the  numerous  and  deep  valleys  which 
intersect  the  plateaus,  the  soil  produces  abundant  crops  of  all  the 
grains  of  Europe,  and  towns  and  populous  villages  may  be  en- 
countered at  the  height  of  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe,  and  even  of 
Mont  Blanc. 

The  climate,  generally  rude  and  cold,  is  but  slightly  modified 
in  the  sheltered  valleys ;  snow  and  the  hurricane  reign  without 
interruption  during  four  months.  "  A  remarkable  effect  of  the 
winds  of  the  puna,"  observes  M.  Tschondi,  "  is  the  rapid  wither- 


420  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

ing  of  dead  bodies  ;  a  few  days  suffice  to  metamorpliose  a  dead 
mule  into  a  perfect  mummy,  whose  entrails  even  cease  to  pu- 
trefy." Here  and  there  this  dry  and  cold  wind,  which  causes 
excessive  pain  in  the  eyes  and  skin,  is  traversed  by  cuiTcnts  of 
hot  air  descending  from  the  mountains,  as  we  have  said  above. 

Minerals.  —  The  soil  of  Bolivia  abounds  with  precious  metals. 
Gold  and  silver  mines  are  there  reckoned  by  hundreds ;  and  as 
they  are,  for  the  most  part,  in  regions  as  elevated  as  the  summit 
of  the  Alps,  the  population  has  become  concentrated  around 
them,  and  cities  are  found  at  that  height.  The  shepherd  has 
been  known  to  discover  in  the  morning,  on  the  hearth  where  he 
had  lighted  his  fire  the  previous  night,  a  rich  vein  of  silver,  the 
extreme  surface  of  which  the  heat  had  dissolved,  and  thus  exposed 
to  view.  But  within  a  certain  period,  as  it  appears,  the  Indians 
have  obstinately  concealed  the  existence  of  mines  known  to  their 
ancestors,  being  fully  persuaded  that  they  are  to  them  only  a 
source  of  pain  and  fatiguing  toil,  without  any  real  profit.  All  my 
readers  have  heard  of  the  famous  mines  of  Potosi,  a  conical 
mountain  of  16,000  feet  in  height.  The  top  of  the  mountain  is 
perforated  by  more  than  5000  openings,  made  in  search  of  silver 
ore.  From  1545  to  1789,  the  mines  of  Potosi  are  supposed  to 
have  yielded  the  enormous  sum  of  $96,800,000  in  gold  and  silver. 
These  mines  are  now  poorly  worked,  and  falling  into  disuse. 

The  vegetation  of  Bolivia  is,  for  the  most  part,  that  of  our 
temperate  countries.  Maize  and  wheat  are  there  cultivated,  and 
the  potato,  which  grows  naturally,  as  in  Chili ;  and  in  the  hottest 
valleys,  the  banana,  sugar  cane,  cotton,  palm  trees,  &c.  A  small 
plant,  with  which  a  bountiful  Providence  has  gifted  the  inhabit- 
ants of  these  high  regions,  and  which  ripens  at  more  than  13,000 
feet  above  the  sea,  in  a  climate  where  neither  barley  nor  oats 
could  endure,  is  the  quinoa,  {chenopodium  quinoa.)  Before  the 
introduction  of  our  cereals,  the  natives  made  very  great  use  of  the 
seeds  of  this  plant.  Even  now  they  use  them  in  the  preparation 
of  soup,  and  of  the  leaves  make  a  kind  of  beer,  or  eat  them  as 
spinach.  Another  plant,  which  is  the  friend  and  consoler  of  the 
Peruvian  Indian  under  all  earthly  circumstances,  is  the  cele- 
brated coca,  {erythoxylon  coca.)  It  may  almost  be  said  to  be 
more  essential  to  him  than  his  daily  food,  for  it  furnishes  him 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA. 


421 


with  the  means  of  dispensmg,  to  a  certain  extent,  with  meat  and 
drink.  While  chewing  a  few  coca  leaves  the  Indian  forgets  all 
his  woes,  his  tatters,  and  the  cruelty  of  those  who  compel  him  to 


Coca. 


labor.  A  single  meal  a  day  suffices  him,  but  three  times  at  least, 
within  that  period,  he  must  suspend  his  labors  to  chew  his  coca. 
It  is  said  that  this  substance  not  only  preserves  his  strength  and 
prolongs  his  life,  but  also  that  it  is  a  precious  antidote  against  the 
injurious  effects  of  the  rarity  of  the  air  in  these  high  mountains. 
The  coca  is  a  shrub,  from  four  to  six  feet  high ;  the  flavor  of  the 
leaves  is  enhanced  by  a  preparation  with  which  lime  and  spices 
are  combined. 

Animals.  —  Of  all  the  beasts  of  prey  of  the  forests,  the  most 
dangerous  is  the  ounce,  or  jaguar,  which  multiplies  so  rapidly  in 
certain  provinces  of  Peru,  that  it  sometimes  obliges  the  inhabit- 
ants to  abandon  their  villages.  But  the  animals  especially  to  be 
dreaded  are  the  innumerable  serpents  concealed  beneath  the  thick 
beds  of  dead  leaves,  which  cover  the  ground.  The  most  dan- 
36 


422  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

gerous  of  all  is  a  little  viper,  less  than  a  foot  in  length,  whose 
venom  kills  the  most  robust  man  in  two  or  three  minutes.  The 
Indians,  when  bitten,  do  not  even  dream  of  seeking  an  antidote, 
but  immediately  stretch  themselves  on  the  ground  to  die.  Bats 
are  very  abundant,  and  very  large ;  some  measure  about  two  feet 
with  their  wings  extended.     Notwithstanding  what  has  been  said 


Jaguar, 


to  the  contrary,  it  appears  that  the  vampire  species  steal  into 
stables  and  houses  for  the  purpose  of  feasting  on  the  blood  of 
sleeping  men  or  animals.  At  first  the  vampire  contents  itself 
with  scratching  the  skin  with  its  muzzle ;  then,  when  its  small, 
sharp  teeth  have  pierced  the  outer  skin,  it  gently  sucks  the  blood, 
with  which  it  gorges  itself  until  surfeited.  Although  these  dis- 
gusting animals  can  imbibe  only  a  few  ounces,  the  hemorrhage 
which  they  occasion  is  sometimes  considerable,  and  mules  often 
perish  in  consequence  of  the  exhaustion  caused  by  these  repeated 
bleedings.  A  wound  of  this  nature  inflicted  upon  man  produces 
a  violent  inflammation  and  a  great  swelling. 


THE  CONTINENT   OP  AMERICA.  423 

Although  the  meagre  and  yellow  pasturage  of  the  puna  fur- 
nishes very  insufficient  nourishment  for  cattle,  immense  herds  of 
sheep,  oxen,  alpacas,  and  lamas  are  raised. 

The  pop)ulation,  as  in  Chili,  is  composed  of  whites  of  Spanish 
origin,  of  Indians  and  mestizoes.  The  Indians  are  here  much 
more  numerous  than  the  whites  ;  they  alone  labor,  but  they  are 
discouraged  by  all  kinds  of  vexatious  treatment,  although  the 
republican  constitution  of  the  country  establishes  a  perfect  equal- 
ity between  the  Indian  and  the  Creole.  The  insufficiency  of  the 
population,  the  absence  of  good  roads,  tlie  want  of  security  and 
police,  and  the  continual  revolutions,  arrest  all  activity,  and  ob- 
struct the  development  of  the  natural  riches  of  these  countries. 
The  inhabitants  are  all  Catholics,  but  uneducated,  very  super- 
stitious, and  corrupt. 

Peruvian  Plateau.  —  The  high  country  of  Peru  consists 
of  two  principal  divisions ;  of  high,  bare,  and  arid  plateaus, 
between  the  different  chains  of  the  Cordilleras,  (concerning  which 
we  have  nothing  to  add  to  what  has  been  already  stated,)  and, 
between  the  Andes  and  the  ocean,  a  long  strip  of  arid  and  sandy 
coasts,  intersected  only  by  a  few  fertile  valleys,  through  which  the 
torrents  force  their  way  to  the  sea. 

The  climate  of  the  sierra,  or  mountain  region,  is,  judging  from 
the  longevity  of  the  inhabitants,  extremely  salubrious  ;  but  it  is 
often  quite  cold.  In  the  plains,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  a 
mild  temperature  is  enjoyed;  the  air  is  refreshed  by  the  sea 
breeze,  and  by  the  wind  which  blows  from  the  Cordilleras.  It 
never  rains  there,  but  the  soil  is  moistened  by  abundant  dews. 

The  mineral  substances  no  longer  possess  the  same  importance 
as  formerly.  The  most  numerous  mines  are  those  of  silver  ;  they 
are  found  especially  on  the  high  plateaus  ;  the  working  of  them 
is  generally  ill  understood  or  abandoned,  although  this,  notwith- 
standing, always  constitutes  one  of  the  principal  revenues  of  the 
country.  Obsidian  is  also  found  there  —  a  species  of  volcanic 
glass,  of  a  black  tinge,  called  mirror  of  the  Incas,  because  the 
Peruvians  made  mirrors  of  it,  as  well  as  sharp-edged  tools.  A 
considerable  quantity  of  saltpetre  is  also  obtained  from  this 
country. 

The  vegetation  of  Peru  has  neither  that  grandeur  nor  power' 


424  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

which  excite  admiration  in  the  other  portions  of  America.  The 
coast  is  only  possessed  of  fertihty  on  the  borders  of  rivers ;  every 
where  else  a  complete  desert  of  sand  meets  the  eye.  In  all  the 
well-watered  valleys,  orange,  banana,  and  lemon  trees,  tall  as 
young  oaks,  form  fresh  oases.  Much  maize  is  cultivated,  some 
varieties  of  wheat,  which  might  be  made  to  yield  almost  fabulous 
crops,  the  finest  and  best  potatoes  in  the  world,  the  batata,  or 
sweet  potato,  the  excellent  manioc,  root  and  vines,  from  which 
little  is  extracted  except  white  brandy  and  a  few  cordials.  On 
the  easfern  slopes  of  the  Andes  grow  an  abundance  of  renowned 
cinchonas,  and  different  species  of  palm  trees,  among  others  the 
wax  palm. 

The  animals  are  the  same  as  those  of  Upper  Peru,  and  it 
would  be  useless  to  enumerate  them.  But  there  is  a  very  singu- 
lar animal  production,  which  we  must  not  omit  to  mention,  in 
connection  with  Peru,  since  it  forms  at  the  present  time  the  prin- 
cipal wealth  of  the  country,  viz.,  the  guano.  This  name  is  given 
to  the  excrements  of  sea  birds  —  pelicans,  petrels,  boobies,  sec- 
retaries, and  frigates,  which,  every  evening  at  sunset,  perch  on 
the  small  islands  and  the  declivities  of  the  shore,  at  the  west  of 
Patagonia,  Chili,  and  principally  the  Chincha  Islands  of  Peru. 
In  certain  places  the  layers  of  these  deposits  are  as  many  as  20  to 
40  feet  or  more  in  thickness ;  bones  and  other  remains  of  birds 
are  frequently  intermingled  with  it.  Other  deposits  have  also 
been  found  at  the  distance  of  a  league  or  a  league  and  a  half 
from  the  shore,  which,  from  the  fragments  which  have  been  discov- 
ered among  them,  appear  to  have  been  formed  originally  by  vast 
shoals  of  fish,  stranded  on  the  banks,  which  have  afterwards  been 
upheaved  by  earthquakes,  and  removed  to  a  distance  from  the 
sea.  However  this  may  be,  the  guano  constitutes  one  of  the 
hottest  and  most  energetic  manures  that  is  known ;  and  the  agri- 
culturists of  North  America  and  Europe  make  daily  increasing 
consumption  of  it.  This  natural  wealth,  which  costs  only  the 
labor  of  collecting  and  loading  ships  with  it,  is  far  more  profitable 
to  Peru  than  all  its  silver  and  gold  mines.  In  1846,  it  was  ex- 
ported to  the  value  of  nearly  $2,000,000,  while  the  exportation 
of  precious  metals  amounted  to  $4,000,000     But  in  1853,  the 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  425 

guano  produced  the  enormous  revenue  of  upwards  of  $11,000,000, 
and  the  product  of  gold  and  silver  had  sensibly  diminished. 

The  population  is  composed  of  three  principal  races  —  whites, 
negroes,  Indians,  and  mixed  breeds.  The  first  are  still  the  aris- 
tocratic class,  holding  the  two  others  in  contempt ;  the  Indians 
as  a  conquered,  and  the  negroes  as  a  purchased  people.  They 
are  few  in  number,  and  chiefly  inhabit  the  cities  ;  the  negroes  are 
likewise  few  in  number,  but  their  descendants,  the  Zamhoes,  the 
offspring  of  their  mixture  with  the  whites,  form,  along  the  whole 
coast,  a  lively,  intelligent,  and  active,  although  corrupt  popula- 
tion, which  despise  the  Indian  and  detest  the  white  man  ;  these 
are  the  most  skilful  workmen  in  the  cities.  The  mixed  breed 
descending  from  Indians,  the  cholos,  small,  with  yellow  com- 
plexion, black  and  stiff  hair,  and  broad  and  fiat  face,  have,  since 
the  establishment  of  the  republican  government,  occupied  impor- 
tant places  in  the  army  and  the  government.  The  Indians,  or 
trusty  indigenous  Peruvians,  are  of  a  melancholy  and  timid 
character,  cowed  by  long  oppression,  pusillanimous  in  the  moment 
of  danger,  ferocious  and  cruel  after  victory,  and  hard  and  impla- 
cable in  the  exercise  of  power.  Greatly  fearing  the  Spaniards, 
they  yield  submission  to  their  mandates,  but  abhor  them  in  secret. 
Robust,  and  capable  of  enduring  labor,  they  stagnate  in  igno- 
rance and  uncleanliness ;  the  passion  for  gaming  and  liquor 
causes  great  ravages  among  them.  The  great  diminution  of  the 
Indian  population  is  even  attributed  mainly  to  the  excessive  use 
of  ardent  spirits.  Although  their  religion  is  strongly  impregnated 
with  the  superstitions  of  their  idolatrous  ancestors,  they  are  strict 
observers  of  the  feasts  and  ceremonies  of  the  Romish  church, 
and  incur  considerable  expenses  in  processions  and  masses.  The 
dramatic  representations  of  the  scenes  of  the  life  and  passion  of 
Christ,  every  where  else  abolished,  are  always  the  delight  of  the 
Indians,  and  government  has  not  dared  to  provoke  their  hostility 
by  depriving  them  of  these  festivals.  They  have  preserved  the 
language  of  the  ancient  Peruvians  —  a  language  so  soft  and 
agreeable,  that  the  Spaniards  voluntarily  adopt  it.  There  exist 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes  independent  and  warlike  In- 
dians, whom  the  Spaniards  have  never  been  able  to  subdue,  and 
3G* 


426  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

who  are  subject  to  caciques,  or  chiefs,  real  or  pretended  descend* 
ants  of  the  Incas,  or  ancient  kings  of  the  country. 

Plateau  op  Quito,  or  Ecuador.  —  This  high  country  is 
composed,  like  the  preceding,  of  a  low  and  very  hot  coast,  of  tem- 
perate and  fertile  plateaus,  from  8000  to  10,000  feet  high,  the 
principal  of  which  are  those  of  Quito,  (9500  feet,)  of  Pastos, 
(10,000  feet,)  farther  north,  and  of  valleys  and  secondary  moun- 
tains, inclining  to  the  east,  towards  the  vast  plains  of  the  interior 
of  the  American  continent. 

Aspect.  —  These  plateaus,  surrounded  by  the  double  chain  of 
the  Andes  and  its  snowy  peaks,  seem  to  be  only  deep  valleys, 
where  the  population  have  chosen  to  concentrate  themselves. 
This  is  especially  the  case  with  the  plateau  of  Quito,  completely 
covered  with  orchards  and  fine  cultivated  lands,  strewn  with  vil- 
lages and  herds,  and  bordered  with  colossal  peaks,  among  which 
towers  Chimborazo.  Many  of  these  peaks  are  terrible  volcanoes : 
Cayambe,  whose  majestic  summit  is  precisely  under  the  equator; 
Cotopaxi,  among  the  most  formidable  of  American  volcanoes ; 
Plchincha  and  Antisana.  Such  a  vicinity  has  often  involved  the 
inhabitants  of  this  country  in  terrible  disasters.  In  1797  a  space 
of  50  leagues  in  length  and  35  in  breadth  was  literally  subverted, 
and  40,000  persons  perished  at  Quito  and  in  the  neighboring 
cities.  At  the  time  of  the  eruption  of  1803,  the  sudden  dissolu- 
tion of  the  snow  which  covered  Cotopaxi  caused  fearful  destruc- 
tion. In  1768  the  ashes  of  this  volcano  diffused  utter  darkness 
for  a  distance  of  25  leagues :  at  another  time,  its  flames  rose  3000 
feet  above  the  crater;  on  other  occasions  its  terrible  roarings 
have  made  themselves  heai*d  at  50  and  even  200  leagues  distance. 
K  man  could  not  habituate  himself  to  every  thing,  even  to  dan- 
ger, he  would  in  this  country  necessarily  live  in  a  state  of  con- 
tinual alarm. 

The  climate  of  this  plateau,  situated  under  the  equator,  v/ould 
seem  entitled  to  the  mild  temperature  of  a  perpetual  spring ;  and 
it  formerly  possessed  such,  until  the  terrible  earthquake  of  1797 : 
since  that  period  it  has  become  more  severe ;  the  sky  is  dull  and 
cloudy,  and  earthquakes  much  more  frequent. 

Minerals.  —  There  exist  mines  of  gold,  silver,  and  platinum  ; 
but  at  such  an  elevation  that  the  cold,  and  especially  the  want  of 


THE    CONTINENT   OF    AMERICA.  427 

wood,  render  the  working  of  tliem  almost  impracticable.  From 
this  country  are  also  obtained  emeralds,  called  emeralds  of  Peru, 
which  are  justly  preferred  to  all  others,  since  those  of  Egypt  have 
been  neglected.  Mineral  salt,  "pit  coal,  and  mercury  are  likewise 
found.  Among  the  most  remarkable  vegetables  of  this  and  the 
neighboring  countries  may  be  mentioned  the  cocojo,  which  is  care- 


Cacao. 

fully  cultivated,  and  produces  two  crops  a  year.  This  vegetable, 
whose  form  resembles  that  of  our  cherry  trees,  requires  to  be  pro- 
tected by  other  trees  against  the  force  of  the  winds.  It  bears  an 
elongated  fruit,  in  the  centre  of  which  are  clustered  the  kernels, 
enveloped  in  a  watery  and  acid  pulp.  The  largest  gathering  of 
these  seeds,  or  the  cacao,  is  made  in  December ;  there  is  a  small- 
er one  in  June  ;  each  tree  may  yield  two  or  three  pounds  of  dried 
kernels.  After  being  suffered  to  ferment,  during  a  few  days,  and 
then  dried  in  the  sun,  they  are  introduced  into  commerce,  where 
they  have  acquired  very  great  importance  on  account  of  the  use 
which  is  made  of  them  in  the  manufacture  of  chocolate,  a  dish 
which  the  Indians  were  skilled  in  preparing  long  before  the  dis- 
covery of  America.  This  nutriment  is  merely  the  cacao,  roasted, 
like  coffee,  in  iron  cylinders,  commonly  called  burners,  then 
crushed  as  fine  as  possible,  and  afterwards  mixed  with  sugar,  to 
be  ground  anew.  This  paste,  which  is  formed  into  cakes  by  be- 
ing poured  into  moulds,  bears  the  name  of  chocolat  de  sante  ; 
it  is  generally  flavored  with  some  aromatic,  such  as  vanilla  or  cin- 
namon, which  improves  the  taste,  and  renders  it  more  easy  of 


428  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

digestion.  It  is  then  an  agreeable,  wholesome,  and  strengthening 
food.  The  cacao  nuts  contain  a  great  quantity  of  rich  oil,  which 
naturally  thickens,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  cacao  butter,  so 
called  on  account  of  its  resemblance  to  real  butter,  to  which  it 
is  preferred  in  medicine,  as  more  softening  in  cases  of  burns, 
chapped  skin,  &c. 

The  other  principal  cultivations  in  this  country  are  grain  and 
fruits,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  indigo ;  an  extremely  celebrated  cin- 
chona is  also  obtained  from  the  environs  of  Loxa. 

The  animals  and  population  present  the  same  characteristics 
as  in  the  countries  of  which  we  have  already  spoken  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraphs. 

Plateau  of  New  Granada. —  This  high  country,  situated 
north  of  the  preceding,  is  composed  of  a  certain  number  of  pla- 
teaus, several  of  which  are  very  elevated,  and  can  be  penetrated 
only  on  foot,  through  chasms  very  difficult  to  thread.  Thus  it  is 
in  this  part  of  the  Andes  that  the  barbarous  custom  of  travelling 
on  the  backs  of  men  principally  prevails.  The  unfortunate  beings 
who  serve  as  beasts  of  burden  are  mostly  Indians,  or  mixed 
breeds.  Slightly  clothed,  often,  indeed,  almost  entirely  naked, 
they  bear  on  their  backs  a  chair,  in  which  the  traveller  seats 
himself^  protected  by  a  large  parasol,  provided  with  a  whip,  and 
often  with  spurs,  with  which  he  does  not  hesitate  to  strike  his 
bearer.  Among  the  natural  curiosities  resulting  from  the  bold 
and  picturesque  configuration  of  this  country  should  be  mentioned 
the  Cascade  of  Tequendama,  formed  by  the  Rio  de  Bogota,  (one 
of  the  rivers  of  the  plateau,)  which  precipitates  itself  through  a 
narrow  opening  into  a  ravine,  900  feet  in  depth,  above  which 
constantly  rises  a  column  of  vapor  that  may  be  perceived  at  five 
leagues  distance.  It  is  also  in  the  same  neighborhood  that  the 
famous  Torrent  of  Icononzo,  or  Pandi,  is  found,  incased  in  an 
almost  inaccessible  bed,  which  could  only  be  crossed  with  extreme 
difficulty,  if  Nature  herself  had  not  spanned  it  with  two  bridges 
of  rock.  The  first,  which  is  44^  feet  in  length  and  37  in  width,  is 
300  feet  above  the  level  of  the  torrent.  A  little  lower  is  found 
another  natural  bridge,  formed  by  three  enormous  masses  of  rock, 
fallen  in  such  a  manner  as  mutually  to  sustain  each  other,  the 
middle  one  forming  the  keystonq. 


THE   CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  429 

The  climate  of  these  plateaus  is  temperate,  and  even  cold, 
but  very  healthy;  while  at  their  base,  on  the  sea  shore,  and 
in  the  few  neighboring  plains,  the  air  is  hot,  stifling,  and  pesti- 
lential. 

The  mineral  productions  are  rich  and  various.  On  the  plateau, 
near  Bogota,  beds  of  coal  are  discovered  at  a  height  of  7700 
feet.  Gold  is  principally  obtained  by  washing ;  lumps  weighing 
25  pounds  have  been  found  at  Choco,  but  the  countries  richest 
in  gold  are  those  where  the  dearth  of  wood  and  provision  (on 
account  of  the  difficulty  of  the  roads)  makes  itself  most  severely 
felt ;  the  veins  of  silver  would  be  very  rich,  but  they  are  ex- 
tremely neglected.  Emeralds,  (called  Peruvian^  some  small 
diamonds,  mercury,  and  salt  are  found. 

Vegetables.  —  Here,  as  in  the  other  portions  of  the  Andes,  the 
products  of  all  climates  are  seen  to  succeed  each  other  at  different 
heights  —  the  palm,  banana,  pineapple,  the  fruits  of  the  south,  the 
vine,  and  cereals.  Besides  the  cultivations  already  enumerated 
in  the  foregoing  paragraph,  the  cacao,  indigo,  tobacco,  cinchona, 
and  other  plants  and  medicinal  drugs,  which  furnish  the  principal 
objects  of  exportation,  we  should  also  specify  the  variilla,  a 
climbing  plant,  which  rises  to  a  considerable  height,  and  grows  in 
the  hot,  damp,  and  shady  portions  of  equinoctial  America.  Its 
fruit,  which  is  also  called  vanilla,  is  a  pod  of  an  aromatic  flavor, 
and  an  agreeable  odor ;  it  is  of  the  size  of  the  little  finger,  and  four 
or  five  inches  in  length.  The  beans  are  used  for  flavoring  choco- 
late, ice  creams,  and  pomatum.  It  is  a  substance  which  stimulates 
the  digestive  organs  of  the  stomach,  but  which  answers  httle  other 
purpose  in  medicine. 

The  animals  of  this  country  need  no  especial  mention,  with  the 
exception  of  the  guacharos,  a  species  of  birds  of  the  size  of  a  hen, 
with  black  plumage,  and  which,  in  their  habits,  resemble  the  crow 
of  the  Alps.  They  retreat,  during  the  day,  into  deep  caverns, 
where  they  are  reproduced  in  prodigious  numbers.  Every  year, 
the  Indians,  armed  with  long  poles,  destroy  the  greater  part  of 
the  nests ;  many  thousands  of  small  birds  fall  on  the  ground,  and 
are  opened  on  the  spot.  From  them  is  taken  a  thick  layer  of  fat, 
found  under  the  breast,  which  is  transported  from  the  grotto  to 
what  is  called  the  oil  harvest.    The  fat  of  the  young,  freshly  slain 


430 


THE  GEOGRAPHY   OP  NATURE. 


guacharos  is  melted  in  pots  of  clay,  over  fires  of  brushwood.     It 
furnishes  a  kind  of  half-liquid,  transparent,  and  scentless  oil,  so 


Vanilla. 

pure  that  it  may  be  preserved  a  whole  year  without  becoming 
rancid. 

The  population,  like  that  of  the  preceding  plateaus,  consists  of 
whites  of  Spanish  origin,  of  mestizoes,  Indians,  and  a  small 
number  of  negroes. 

Plateau  of  Central  America,  or  Guatemala.  —  Be- 
tween the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  that  of  Tehuantepec,  situated 
beyond  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  between  the  Bay  of  Campeachy 
at  the  north  and  that  of  Tehuantepec  at  the  south,  stretches  the 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  431 

high  country  of  Central  America,  which  is  composed  of  several 
inconsiderable  plateaus,  the  principal  of  which  is  that  of  Guate- 
mala. The  latter,  situated  west  of  Yucatan,  encompasses  the  Bay 
of  Honduras  with  terraces  and  high  mountains.  It  consists  of 
mountainous  and  verdant  plains  of  great  extent,  and  5000  feet  in 
height.  It  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  a  line  of  twenty  volcanoes, 
subject  to  terrible  eruptions,  which  frequently  occasion  violent 
earthquakes. 

The  climate  is  temperate  on  the  high  lands ;  but  on  the  coasts, 
as  in  every  country  where  heat  and  dampness  are  excessive, 
miasma  of  the  most  pernicious  nature  is  developed,  which  renders 
it  a  very  unhealthy  place  of  residence  for  most  of  the  Europeans, 
and  even  for  the  natives. 

Vegetation.  —  Under  the  influence  of  a  hot  temperature  and 
tropical  rains,  an  extremely  vigorous  and  exuberant  vegetation 
is  generated  in  the  low  plains.  Forests  of  gigantic  trees  seek  the 
pure  air  above  an  impenetrable  thicket  of  less  lofty  plants,  and 
the  soil  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  is  overgrown  M'ith  jungles, 
containing  reeds,  which  are,  it  is  said,  as  many  as  a  hundred  feet 
in  height.  On  the  plateau  the  vegetation  of  the  temperate  zone 
succeeds  to  perfection.  Arid  spaces  are  occupied  by  the  cactus, 
that  fleshy  plant,  from  whose  singular  and  prickly  stalks  issue 
flowers,  usually  magnificent,  and  which  sometimes  embalm  the 
air  with  their  perfumes  ;  pineajjples  appear  to  be  natives  of  these 
countries  and  of  Mexico,  whence  they  have  been  transplanted 
every  where.  Sugar  cane  and  maize  also  grew  wild  in  these 
places  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest.  A  shrub  of  the 
sumac  (rhiis  copallissum)  species  produces  a  resin  celebrated 
under  the  name  of  copal,  and  which  is  used  for  varaishes.  The 
cacao  m\di  indigo  of  Central  America  are  very  renowned;  the 
latter  is  even  esteemed  the  best  in  America.  Tobacco  and  excel- 
lent coffee  are  also  raised. 

Animals.  —  Besides  the  domestic  animals  which  have  been 
introduced  by  the  Spanish  conquerors,  and  have  multiplied  ex- 
ceedingly, a  great  abundance  of  animals  of  all  kinds,  and  especially 
of  game,  may  be  met  with  in  this  country.  They  are  principally 
jaguars,  with  their  magnificent  coat,  and  cougars,  or  pumas  —  for- 
midable animals,  whicli,  owing  to  a  certain  resemblance  to  the 


432  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

king  of  beasts,  have  been  surnamed   American  lions,  although 
they  have  neither  mane,  nor  tufts  of  hair  at  the  end  of  the  taiL 


Puma. 

The  puma  often  attains  four  feet  in  length.  Its  skin  is  of  a  dusky- 
red,  (whence  the  name  of  red  tiger  of  Cayenne,)  its  neck  and 
breast  are  almost  white,  its  ears  short  and  nearly  black,  its  body 
long,  its  legs  short,  and  its  back  hollow,  like  that  of  the  horse. 
It  rarely  attacks  man,  but  causes  great  ravages  among  cattle.  It 
climbs  trees  like  a  cat.  The  other  animals  of  thii  country  are 
stags,  deer,  and  roes,  which  devastate  the  plantations;  coyotes, 
species  of  wolves,  individually  timid,  but  formidable  when  rave- 
nous, or  collected  in  bands,  insomuch  that  one  stands  little  chance 
of  escaping  them,  even  by  seeking  refuge  on  trees,  as  they  can 
loosen  the  earth  at  their  base  and  uproot  them ;  hares,  partridges, 
and  heathcocks  are  encountered  at  every  step.  Nevertheless, 
the  superstitious  inhabitants  of  the  country  prefer  to  go  without 
food  rather  than  touch  game.  "  We  are  poor,  but  Christians,"  is 
their  reply  to  those  who  invite  them  to  partake  of  it.  We  have 
already  stated  that  noidous  insects,  and  especially  mosquitos,  are 
one  of  the  most  terrible  scourges  of  tliis  country. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  433 

The  population  is  composed  of  Spaniards,  always  embroiled  in 
revolutions  and  civil  wars,  which  ruin  a  country  naturally  very 
rich  and  fertile,  and  of  Indians,  for  the  most  part  continuing  in- 
dependent, and  who  often  render  themselves  formidable  to  the 
whites.  The  Spaniards  are  Catholics,  the  rest  idolaters,  and  en- 
slaved to  all  kinds  of  superstitions. 

Plateau  of  Anahuac,  or  Mexico.  —  Whereas  in  the 
Andes  of  South  America  the  plateaus  are  a  species  of  high  val- 
leys, included  between  two  branches  of  the  great  Cordilleras,  in 
Mexico  the  whole  interior  of  the  country  is  an  elevated  level. 
And  while  in  New  Granada,  or  in  Peru,  profound,  transversal, 
and  perpendicular  valleys  prevent  the  inhabitants  from  trav- 
elling otherwise  than  on  horseback,  on  foot,  or  borne  on  the 
backs  of  Indians,  carriages  can  roll  from  one  extremity  of  the 
Anahuac  to  the  other,  over  an  extent  of  several  hundi-ed  leagues. 
The  slopes  by  which  one  ascends  the  plateau  are,  it  is  true,  rough 
and  steep,  especially  on  the  eastern  coast;  but  in  the  interior  of 
the  country  none  of  the  obstacles  exist  which  are  met  with  in 
the  high  countries  of  South  America. 

Climate.  —  The  elevation  of  the  different  parts,  of  which 
the  plateau  of  Anahuac  is  composed,  is  not  every  where  the 
same.  It  varies  from  4000  to  7500  feet.  From  these  differ- 
ences of  level  naturally  result  great  variations  in  climate  and 
productions.  At  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  on  the  coasts,  are  the 
tierras  calientes,  or  hot  lands,  rich  in  all  the  products  of  the  trop- 
ics, but  of  a  very  unhealthy  climate,  and  particularly  exposed  to 
the  ravages  of  the  yellow  fever.  On  the  declivities  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras (from  3500  to  4500  feet  in  height)  are  the  tierras  tem- 
pladas,  or  temperate  countries,  where  a  mild,  spring-like  temper- 
ature reigns  perpetually,  and  where  extreme  heat  and  excessive 
cold  are  alike  unknown.  The  tierras  frias  (cold  regions)  com- 
prehend the  mountains,  and  plateaus  which  rise  to  a  height  of 
above  6000  feet.  Notwithstanding  this  denomination,  the  cold 
may  be  said  to  be  scarcely  felt  on  the  plateaus ;  the  winters,  in 
fact,  are  generally  as  mild  as  at  Naples,  and  the  olive  is  success- 
fully cultivated.  "  Although  situated  at  the  height  of  the  hospice 
of  St.  Bernard,"  says  M.  Ampere,  "  Mexico  enjoys  a  delightfully 
temperate  climate.  But  the  situation  of  this  city  (the  true  centre 
37 


434  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

of  the  plateau)  is  unfavorable  to  persons  possessing  delicate  chests, 
■who  can  with  difficulty  breathe  in  so  rare  an  atmosphere.  The 
purity  of  the  air  is  here,  as  in  Egypt,  accompanied  by  an  extreme 
dryness.  In  summer  rains  are  of  almost  daily  occurrence  ;  but 
with  this  exception  the  climate  of  Mexico  is  extremely  salubrious ; 
it  is  also  very  agreeable,  because  it  never  attains  the  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold,  and  forms,  in  this  respect,  a  perfect  contrast  to  the 
sudden  changes  of  temperature  of  the  United  States." 

The  mines  of  Mexico  are  celebrated  throughout  the  world,  on 
account  of  the  prodigious  quantity,  if  not  oi  gold,  at  least  o£  silvery 
which  they  have  furnished  since  the  discovery  of  America,  and 
this  country  still  holds  the  first  rank  in  the  production  of  this 
metal.  The  mines  of  Zacate'cas,  Guanaxua'to,  and  Guadalaxa'ra 
are  particularly  renowned ;  some  of  the  richest  bearings  seem 
exhausted ;  others,  neglected  during  the  civil  wars  of  the  com- 
mencement of  this  century,  have  been  invaded  by  the  waters,  and 
the  attempts  of  the  English  companies  to  resume  the  working  of 
them  have  generally  failed. 

Vegetables.  —  Although  a  portion  of  the  plateau  of  Anahuac  is 
rendered  unavailable  by  a  deplorable  aridity,  unfortunately  aug- 
mented by  the  negligence  of  the  Spanish  conqueroi-s,  who  have 
constantly  destroyed,  without  replanting,  the  trees,  and  who,  by 
draining  many  lakes,  have  laid  bare  a  great  number  of  saline 
substances,  whose  influence  has  gradually  extended  over  vast 
spaces,  this  country  deserves  to  be  reckoned  among  the  most 
fertile  in  the  world. 

First  among  the  Mexican  vegetables  which  furnish  an  abun- 
dant alimentary  substance  ranks  the  banana ;  it  has  been  calcu- 
lated that  1000  square  feet  of  soil  planted  with  40  bananas 
readily  produces,  in  a  year,  4000  pounds  weight  of  the  fruit, 
whereas  the  same  space  sown  with  wheat  yields  only  30  pounds 
of  grain.  Much  manioc  is  also  cultivated,  whose  root  affords  an 
excellent  farina,  of  which  (as  has  been  mentioned  elsewhere)  the 
cassava  bread  is  made.  These  two  plants,  it  is  true,  thrive  only 
in  the  hot  or  temperate  regions,  on  the  two  slopes  of  the  Pacific 
or  Atlantic  Oceans.  But  on  the  plateau  itself,  in  the  valley  of 
Mexico,  which  is  qualified  by  a  cold  soil,  although  fire  may  be 
dispensed  with  throughout  the  year,  maize  is  cultivated,  which  on 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  435 

an  average  yields  annually  150  grains  for  every  one  sown,  and 
which  under  the  form  of  tortillas  (species  of  pancakes  or  cheese 
cakes)  constitutes  the  staple  article  of  food.  Wheat  generally 
yields  from  25  to  30  fold  ;  the  potato,  called  in  this  country  papa, 
grows  in  abundance  on  the  plateau;  the  sweet  potato  and  the 
yam  in  the  hot  region.  The  pimento  bears  a  fruit  as  indispensable 
to  the  natives  as  salt  is  to  the  Europeans.  Almost  all  the  vanilla 
which  is  consumed  in  North  America  and  Europe  has  long  been 
exported  from  the  environs  of  Vera  Cruz,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
plateau  of  Anahuac  On  the  other  hand,  the  cacao  tree  and  suffar 
cane  are  now  scarcely  cultivated  in  Mexico,  and  cotton  is  almost 
equally  neglected.  The  best  chocolate  is,  however,  made  in  Mex- 
ico, but  the  manufacturers  are  obliged  to  procure  the  cocoa  from 
Guatemala,  or  from  South  America.  Pineapples,  lemons,  oranges, 
and  other  fruits  of  the  hot  countries  are  found  in  great  abundance. 
Among  the  products  wholly  peculiar  to  Mexico,  or  which  are 


Jalap. 


at   least  essentially   indigenous,  the  jalap,   oxalis,  nopal,   and 
agave  should  be  principally  cited.    The  jalap  is  a  plant  of  the 


436  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

bindweed  (convolvulus)  genus :  its  root,  of  the  size  of  the  fist,  is 
of  a  brownish  color,  and  of  a  bitter  and  nauseous  taste ;  the  resin- 
ous principle  which  it  contains  is  a  very  energetic  cathartic,  but 
rarely  employed  as  a  remedy  on  account  of  its  severity.  Its 
French  name  is  a  corruption  of  that  of  Xalapa,  a  city  at  the 
south-east  of  the  plateau,  from  wliich  this  root  was  originally 
obtained.  The  oxalis,  or  oca,  (oxalis  crenata,)  is  a  tuberous  plant, 
which  is  also  met  with  in  the  mountains  of  Peru ;  its  numerous 
tubercles,  of  a  yellowish  color,  and  of  the  size  of  a  hen's 
egg,  are  palatable  when  cooked,  and  have  a  slightly  acidulated 
taste.  This  plant  has  been  cultivated  in  France  and  England 
within  a  few  years,  and  constitutes  an  agreeable  esculent.  The 
•nopal  is  a  species  of  cactus,  on  which  the  cochineal  insects  subsist, 
yielding  a  beautiful  scarlet  or  crimson  color,  and  of  which  we 
have  already  had  occasion  to  speak.  The  eggs  of  the  cochineal 
are  distributed  over  the  nopal  plants,  and  three  gatherings  of  the 
insect  are  annually  made.  The  cochineal  was  formerly  obtained 
almost  exclusively  from  Mexico,  from  the  vicinity  of  Oaxaca,  at 
the  south  of  the  plateau ;  this  cultivation  now  prospers  in  the 
islands  at  the  north-west  of  Africa,  in  Algeria,  and  elsewhere. 
Another  plant  of  a  strange  and  gloomy  vegetation,  and  which, 
with  the  nopal,  particularly  characterizes  the  Mexican  plateau,  is 
the  agave,  or  American  aloe,  also  surnamed  maguey.  It  presents 
some  analogy  to  the  African  aloes,  except  that  it  has  only  a 
flowery  stalk,  and  no  trunk.  This  vegetable  is,  on  account  of 
its  numerous  uses,  one  of  the  most  precious  gifts  which  a  boun- 
tiful Creator  has  bestowed  upon  the  Mexican  people.  In  the 
first  place,  as  it  flourishes  in  the  poorest  soils,  it  is  suitable  for 
forming  hedges,  which  its  thick  leaves,  covered  with  prickly 
thorns,  render  formidable ;  of  the  root,  prepared  with  sugar,  a 
conserve  is  made  ;  the  leaves,  in  the  form  of  grooves,  are  used  for 
covering  houses  ;  their  thorns  may  be  rendered  useful  as  needles 
and  nails;  the  fibres  which  they  contain  are  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  common  cloth  and  ropes  ;  bruised,  and  converted 
into  pulp,  they  furnish  a  white  paper,  on  which  the.  ancient  Mex- 
icans were  accustomed  to  write,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Egyp- 
tians made  use  of  the  papyrus ;  from  the  broken  stems  of  the 
leaves,  as  also  from  the  stalk  itself,  if  cut  when  it  is  in  flower, 


TtiB  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  437 

there  exudes  in  abundance,  during  several  days,  a  sweet  liquor, 
which,  after  undergoing  fermentation,  takes  the  place  of  wine 
among  the  Aztecs,  and  constitutes,  under  the  name  o^ pulque,  the 
delight  of  the  Mexican  nation.  At  Mexico  the  tables  of  the 
Europeans  are  the  only  ones  where  this  beverage  is  not  daily 
served.  Thus,  as  one  approaches  the  cities,  he  remarks  vast 
fields  where  massive  aloes  are  planted  in  quincunxes,  with  which 
neither  those  that  are  seen  in  Europe  in  the  open  air,  nor  even  in 
greenhouses,  could  be  compared. 

The  animals  of  Europe  have  multiplied  prodigiously  in  this 
country ;  bands  of  wild  horses  may  be  seen  roving  in  the  plains 
of  the  interior ;  the  oxen  are  also  quite  numerous  in  certain  parts ; 
but  mules  especially  abound,  and  are  very  highly  esteemed.  Not 
long  since,  on  the  route  from  Mexico  to  the  port  of  Vera  Cruz, 
70,000  of  these  beasts  of  burden  were  employed  in  the  transpor- 
tation of  merchandise  across  the  abrupt  declivity  of  the  plateau. 
Tlie  wild  animals  are  not  particularly  remarkable :  they  consist 
of  bears,  many  varieties  of  wolves,  jaguars,  cougars,  deer,  stags, 
a  peculiar  species  of  porcupine,  and  mephitic  weasels,  carnivo- 
rous animals,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  the  polecat,  and  whose 
name  (from  the  Latin  mephitis,  offensive  odor)  is  suggestive  of 
their  singular  property.  These  animals,  when  irritated,  diffuse 
a  liquid  so  powerful  as  to  be  almost  suffocating ;  a  single  drop  of 
it  introduced  into  the  eyes  might  destroy  the  sight,  and  when  it 
comes  in  contact  with  clothing,  it  impregnates  it  with  an  odor 
which  it  is  very  difficult  to  remove. 

Multitudes  of  birds  of  brilliant  plumage  enliven  the  forests. 
Many  vultures  may  frequently  be  seen  disputing  their  prey,  even 
in  the  streets  of  the  cities.  The  Muscovy  or  Barhary  duck,  and 
the  turkey,  were  originally  obtained  from  Mexico.  The  latter, 
become  so  heavy  and  stupid  in  a  domestic  state,  exhibits,  however, 
an  uncommon  degree  of  pride  and  vivacity  in  its  wild  state,  in 
the  midst  of  the  vast  forests  of  Mexico  and  North  America ;  its 
plumage,  of  a  beautiful  brown  with  glittering  reflections,  is  like- 
wise much  more  brilliant ;  it  is  of  larger  size,  and  has  somewhat 
the  bearing  and  gait  of  the  bustard. 

The  population,  which  is  extremely  mixed,  is  composed  of 
^hitesj  of  Spanish  origin  and  language ;  all  Catholics,  supersti- 
37* 


438  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

tious,  indolent,  boastful,  devoid  of  real  courage,  constantly  in- 
volved in  the  confusion  of  civil  wars,  and  incapable  of  maintaining 


Turkey. 

any  degree  of  peace  and  security,  or  even  of  defending  themselves 
in  certain  provinces  against  the  independent  Indians.  Brigands 
infest  all  the  highways  ;  they  rarely  assassinate  defenceless  trav- 
ellers, contenting  themselves,  generally,  with  robbing  them.  The 
latter,  indeed,  provide  themselves  with  escorts,  but  they  usually 
ride  at  such  a  distance  that  they  only  arrive  at  full  gallop  just  in 
time  to  see  the  bandits  make  their  escape  after  having  possessed 
themselves  of  their  booty.  In  a  word,  this  is  a  race  which  seems 
to  be  sinking  into  complete  decay. 

The  Indians  form  the  mass  of  the  population  ;  in  the  country 
they  compose  it  almost  exclusively ;  they  are  the  peasants  of 
Mexico  ;  under  the  name  o^ pawns,  or  pledges,  they  are  employed 
in  performing  all  the  labors  which  were  accomplished  by  negrees 
before  the  abolition  of  slavery.  They  only  pledge  themselves  for 
a  year  ;  but  soon  contracting  debts  upon  debts  towards  their  pa- 
trons, they  can  only  recover  their  liberty  by  tlie  payment  of  these 
obligations  ;  this  situation  is  worse  than  slavery,  and  if  they  be- 
come sick  they  are  far  more  neglected  than  the  negroes.  The 
skin  of  the  Mexican  Indians  is  of  a  disagreeable  dusky  yellow, 
exactly  the  color  of  gingerbread,  and  differing  sensibly  from  that 
of  the  Indians  of  the  United  States.     They  have  smooth  and  fljvt 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  439 

hair,  thin  beard,  large  lips,  and  a  mild  expression  about  the  mouth, 
which  contrasts  with  their  otherwise  sombre  and  severe  counte- 
nance. They  are  of  a  nature  habitually  tranquil,  but  capable,  in 
an  emergency,  of  courage,  and  even  of  ferocity.  Those  of  the 
interior  preserve  superstitions  whose  origin  may  be  attributed  to 
the  ancient  religion  of  their  fathers.  They  are  usually  grave, 
melancholy,  and  silent :  this  gravity  is  especially  remarkable 
among  the  children,  who,  at  four  or  five  years  of  age,  display 
much  more  intelligence  than  the  children  of  the  whites.  A  dis- 
tinction should,  however,  be  made  between  those  Indians  con- 
verted to  Catholicism,  and  sumamed  faithful  Indians,  and  those 
who  have  continued  savages,  and  are  known  under  the  name  of 
Indian  bravos,  incessantly  at  war  with  each  other,  or  with  the 
whites.  The  most  formidable  are  the  Camanches  and  the 
Apaches,  who  wander  in  the  plains  and  mountains  of  the  north 
of  the  plateau. 

The  mestizoes,  descendants  of  the  whites  and  natives,  are  quite 
numerous  :  besides  which  are  found  a  small  number  of  mulattoes, 
the  progeny  of  a  white  father  and  negro  mother,  and  zamboes,  or 
chinos,  the  offspring  of  negroes  and  natives.  But  few  negroes 
have  been  introduced  into  Mexico. 

Plateau  of  New  Mexico.  —  North  of  the  Plateau  of  Ana- 
huac,  between  the  two  chains  of  the  Sierra  Madre  and  the  eastern 
Cordillera  extends  New  Mexico,  a  very  long  and  narrow  plateau, 
and  but  little  known,  isolated  as  it  is  from  the  neighboring  coun- 
tries by  high  mountains,  and  by  immense  deserted  plains. 

The  climate  is  of  a  rare  salubrity.  "  Nowhere,"  says  a  travel- 
ler, who  has  resided  in  this  country  during  nine  years,  "  is  a  purer 
atmosphere  to  be  found.  In  summer  the  inhabitants  experience 
no  excessive  heat,  and  in  winter  no  sudden  changes  of  tempera- 
ture. M.  De  Humboldt  was  then  mistaken  in  his  supposition 
that  the  principal  river  of  this  country  (the  Rio  del  Norte)  was 
sometimes  covered  with  ice  so  thick  that  it  could  be  traversed 
with  horses  and  carriages.  Tliis  country  is  sheltered  from  fogs 
and  dampness ;  it  scarcely  rains  there  once  a  year,  and  in  some 
years  not  at  all. 

It  has  been  stated  that  there  were  formerly  in  New  Mexico 
rich  ffold  mines,  but  that  the  Indians,  irritated  by  the  cupidity  of 


440  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

the  Spaniards,  have  so  successfully  concealed  the  traces  of  them 
that  they  cannot  now  be  recovered.  Some,  however,  are  still 
explored. 

The  soil  is  interspersed  with  fruit  and  cotton  trees,  fields  of 
wheat  and  tobacco  plants.  In  the  valley  of  the  Rio  del  Norte 
there  exist  vines  whose  products  are  highly  appreciated,  although 
the  excessive  indolence  of  the  inhabitants  prevents  their  giving 
sufficient  attention  to  any  species  of  cultivation. 

The  animals  and  population  are  the  same  as  on  the  plateau 
of  Anahuac  ;  as  the  latter  are  very  thinly  scattered  over  an  im- 
mense territory,  they  are  peculiarly  exposed  to  the  invasion  of 
the  Apaches  and  other  wild  Indians,  who,  suddenly  surprising 
the  villages,  kill  the  men,  carry  off  the  women  and  children,  and 
speedily  regain  their  mountains  or  deserts,  conveying  with  them, 
on  their  fleet  horses,  all  the  spoil  of  which  they  have  been  able  to 
possess  themselves. 

Plateau  of  New  California.  — West  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains stretches  the  plateau  of  Upper  or  New  California*  The 
eastern  part,  called  Utah,  is  still  but  little  known,  and  seems 
to  be  chiefly  composed  of  desert  plains,  where  scarcely  any 
vegetation  is  encountered  except  in  the  vicinity  of  the  occa- 
sional streams,  mostly  tributaries  of  the  Rio  Colorado,  which  flow 
into  the  Gulf  of  California,  or  on  the  borders  of  the  Great  Salt 
Lake,  at  the  north-east.  Near  this  lake  the  Mormons  have  lo- 
cated themselves  —  a  new  sect,  distinguished  of  late  years  by  the 
singularity  of  their  doctrines,  and  especially  by  the  establishment 
of  polygamy  among  them. 

The  western  portion  is  now  very  well  known,  particularly  that 
which  lies  between  the  coast  ridge  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  two 
almost  parallel  chains,  which  appear  to  unite  at  the  south  with 
the  mountains  of  the  peninsula  of  California,  and  at  the  north 
with  the  Cascade  range.  Between  these  two  chains  in  the 
double  valley  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin,  (two  rivers, 
which  flow  in  opposite  directions,  one  south  and  the  other  north, 
and  pouring  their  waters  into  the  magnificent  Bay  of  San 
Francisco,)  in  the  bed  of  the  streams  which  descend  into  these 
rivers,  have  been  found,  since  1848,  that  incredible  quantity  of 
scales  and  lumps  of  gold  which  have  rendered   California  so 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  441 

celebrated.  Discovered  by  Captain  M.  Sutter,  these  rich  reposi- 
tories were  immediately  invaded  by  multitudes  of  adventurers 
from  all  countries,  even  from  China,  who  commenced  digging, 
collecting,  and  grinding  the  sands,  mixed  with  quartz,  and  extract- 
ing from  them  the  fragments  of  gold  by  washing.     From  this 


Gold  Washing. 

period,  in  spite  of  the  most  toilsome  and  discouraging  labors,  in 
spite  of  the  dangers  to  which  the  gold  seekers  have  been  exposed 
at  the  hands  of  the  Indians,  the  exploration  of  these  mines  has  not 
ceased  to  extend  and  increase  in  importance.  The  total  amount 
of  gold  produced  and  distributed  in  all  directions,  down  to  the 
close  of  1854,  is  estimated  at  $298,243,938  ;  and  there  seems 
to  be  no  indication  that  this  vast  source  of  riches  is  becoming 
exhausted. 

Vegetables.  —  Building  woods  abound  in  this  country  ;  the 
most  precious  belong  to  the  cone  family,  (pines,  firs,  &c.)  Cer- 
tain pines,  among  others,  attain  prodigious  dimensions,  300  feet 
in  height  and  20  feet  in  diameter.  The  species  which  has  been 
surnamed  welUngtonia  is  certainly  one  of  the  principal  wondei*s 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  These  beautiful  trees  grow  on  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  at  an  elevation  of  about  5000  feet ;  the  age  of 
certain  specimens  has  been  estimated  at  more  than  3000  years, 
and  they  equal  in  size  the  enormous  baobab  ;  with  this  difference, 
that  instead  of  having,  like  the  latter,  a  hollow  trunk,  and  a  stalk 


442  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

of  but  little  elevation,  the  wellingtonia  attains  a  height  of  250, 
and  even  800  feet,  and  presents  a  solid  body  of  wood.  The 
trunk  of  one  of  these  trees,  cut  at  five  feet  above  the  ground, 
measured  in  diameter  29  feet  at  the  base  of  the  stem,  and  200 
feet  higher  a  diameter  of  five  and  a  half  feet.  A  portion  of  this 
trunk,  excavated  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  hall,  and  provided 
with  a  carpet,  piano,  and  seats  for  40  persons,  was  found  capable 
of  containing  at  once  140  children,  in  the  metropolis  of  Califor- 
nia, San  Francisco. 

Among  these  pines  there  are  some  whose  cones  contain  sweet 
and  oily  kernels,  of  which  the  Indians  make  use  as  food  during 
several  months  of  the  year,  and  from  which  they  obtain  an  excel- 
lent farina.  Some  of  these  cones  are  as  large  as  sugar  loaves, 
but  those  of  the  ordinary  size  yield  the  best  kernels. 

California  generally  presents,  at  least  in  the  valleys,  a  fertile 
soil,  abundant  in  pasturage. 

The  grains  and  fruits  of  Europe  have  succeeded  there ;  agri- 
culture, at  first  neglected  for  the  mines,  has  recently  acquired  a 
considerable  increase. 

Animals.  —  Before  the  discovery  of  the  gold  mines,  the  valleys 
of  California  contained  immense  herds  of  oxen,  troops  of  wild 
horses,  many  stags,  deer,  and  antelopes;  the  only  formidable 
animal  was  the  grizzly  bear,  which  might  often  be  seen  mounted 
on  oak  trees,  throwing  sweet  acorns  to  its  cubs;  the  rivers 
swarmed  with  enormous  salmon.  The  sudden  increase  of  popu- 
lation has  completely  changed  this  state  of  things,  and  if  the 
domestic  animals  are  still  numerous,  the  wild  ones  have  almost  en- 
tirely disappeared. 

The  population  is  a  confused  mixture  of  all  races  and  nations ; 
the  European  jostles  the  Chinese,  the  North  American  him  of 
the  south ;  all  civilization,  all  languages,  all  religions,  and  also 
every  species  of  misery  and  vice  are  there  represented  ;  but  the 
North  Americans,  who  predominate  in  number,  have,  in  a  man- 
ner, imposed  upon  themselves  the  obhgation  of  providing  for  the 
religious  wants  of  this  yet  disorganized  society,  and  they  have 
already  erected  many  temples  and  schools ;  the  Catholic  church 
has  also  made  praiseworthy  efforts  in  the  same  direction.  This 
population  is,  however,  annually  increased  and  modified  by  im- 
migration. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  443 

Plateau  op  Oregon.  —  North  of  California,  between  tlie 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  lies  the  plateau  of 
Oregon,  ^  vast  territory,  traversed  from  north  to  south  by  chains 
of  pai'allel  mountains,  which  divide  this  country  into  many  ter- 
races, very  different  in  climate,  nature  of  the  soil,  and  productions. 

Their  aspect  is  extremely  diversified ;  here  the  soil  is  barren 
and  sterile,  there  covered  with  beautiful  prairies  and  noble 
trees,  elsewhere  bristling  with  naked  mountains  and  frightful 
rocks. 

Climate.  —  The  most  remarkable  characteristic  of  this  country 
is  the  mildness  and  equality  of  its  temperature.  Neither  rigor- 
ous winters  nor  the  oppressive  heats  of  summer  are  known  there ; 
nor,  moreover,  the  sudden  and  capricious  changes  of  atmosphere 
which  may  be  observed  under  the  same  latitude  in  the  eastern 
part  of  North  America. 

The  summers  are  dry  in  the  vicinity  of  the  coast,  but  the  heat 
of  the  sun  is  mitigated  by  the  sea  breezes ;  on  the  other  hand  it 
rains  there  uninterruptedly,  from  the  month  of  October  until  the 
month  of  April.  On  the  second  terrace  the  rains  are  less  severe, 
and  continue  only  a  few  days  in  the  autumn  and  at  the  com- 
mencement of  spring ;  the  cold,  however,  makes  itself  but  little 
felt,  and  the  snow  melts  as  it  falls.  On  the  terrace  which  is  at 
the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  climate  becomes  more  rig- 
orous, although  much  less  so  than  at  the  same  height  on  the 
eastern  declivity  of  these  same  mountains.  The  mildness  of  the 
climate  of  California  and  Oregon  is  attributed  to  a  counter  cur- 
rent of  warm  water,  proceeding  from  the  coasts  of  China  and 
Japan,  and  which  is,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the  counterpart  of  the 
Gulf  Stream  of  the  Atlantic,  which  conveys  to  Europe  the  heat 
and  moisture  developed  in  the  great  equatorial  current. 

Vegetation  varies  according  to  the  situation  of  places  ;  beyond 
the  valleys,  the  country  preserves  its  general  character  of  sterility ; 
but  on  the  borders  of  rivers  the  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  the  forest 
vegetation  of  unparalleled  beauty.  In  certain  places  the  grass 
rises  even  to  the  body  of  a  horse.  The  portions  recently  sub- 
jected to  cultivation  by  the  new  colonists  produce  abundant  crops 
of  wheat,  potatoes,  and  onions  of  prodigious  size,  as  also  other 
excellent  vegetables.    The  dimensions  of  the  trees  of  Oregon 


k 


444  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

are  likewise  enormous ;  all  travellers  have  commented  upon 
certain  pines,  which  are  almost  as  gigantic  as  those  of  California ; 
but  these  trees,  growing  in  the  midst  of  a  constantly  humid  at- 
mosphere, generally  yield  a  soft  and  spongy  wood.  In  order  to 
improve  its  quality,  it  should  be  hardened  by  the  absorption  of 
certain  saline  and  metallic  liquids,  according  to  the  skilful  process 
of  Dr.  Boucherie. 

Previous  to  its  being  cultivated,  this  country  furnished  the 
natives  with  scarcely  any  useful  plant,  and  the  chase  was  their 
only  resource.  In  the  favorable  season,  they  could,  however, 
collect  certain  berries  and  wild  fruits,  among  others  those  of  the 
plum  and  cherry  trees ;  mosses,  which,  boiled  during  three  days 
and  three  nights,  supplied  them  with  a  nourishing  species  of 
jelly ;  kammas,  resembling  onions,  and  which  after  being  well 
cooked  and  reduced  to  paste  became  a  winter  store ;  and  the 
kinnih-kinnih,  the  second  bark  of  the  red  willow,  which,  after 
being  crisped  before  the  fire  and  rolled  between  the  fingers,  was 
used  by  the  inhabitants  instead  of  tobacco. 

The  animals,  on  the  contrary,  were  extremely  numerous, 
especially  the  fur-clad  animals,  whose  skins  gave  rise  to  a  con- 
siderable commerce,  which  is  every  year  diminishing.  Nowhere, 
perhaps,  in  North  America,  are  found  such  great  numbers  of 
rattlesnakes,  the  most  dangerous  of  venomous  serpents.  Their 
bite,  indeed,  entails  terrible  consequences,  both  from  its  serious 
nature  and  from  the  promptitude  with  which  it  manifests  itself, 
and  death  is  the  almost  inevitable  result.  A  menagerie  keeper, 
having  been  bitten  at  Rouen,  had  the  courage  to  immediately 
sever,  with  the  blow  of  an  axe,  the  finger  which  had  been  at- 
tacked ;  but  it  was  in  vain :  a  few  minutes  later  he  sank  under 
the  effects  of  the  absorption  which  had  already  operated. 

The  rattles  consist  of  a  variable  number  of  capsules,  embedded 
one  within  another,  and  which,  dry  and  movable,  produce,  when 
the  tail  is  rapidly  agitated,  a  noise  similar  to  that  of  the  pods  of 
dried  leguminous  plants.  This  noise  is  not  very  loud,  but  may  be 
heard  at  about  thirty  paces'  distance,  and  the  animal  creates  it 
whenever  any  thing  occurs  to  disturb  it.  Thus  is  afforded  a  kind 
of  providential  warning,  which  reveals  to  other  beings  the  pres- 
ence of  this  terrible  reptile,  and  which,  owing  to  the  slowness  of 


THE   CONTINENT   OP   AMERICA, 


445 


its  movements,  often  enables  them  to  avoid  it.  As  the  rattlesnake 
principally  inhabits  dry  and  arid  places,  man  is  rarely  exposed  to 
its  attacks.     They  seldom  bite  without  provocation.     Men  affirm 


Rattlesnake. 


to  have  more  than  once  escaped  them  by  throwing  snufF  in  their 
eyes  and  mouth. 

The  population,  still  inconsiderable  in  number,  will  soon  be 
composed  solely  of  white  colonists.  The  Indians  are  rapidly 
diminishing,  in  consequence  of  drunkenness,  small  pox,  and  con- 
tinual wars. 

Plateau  of  Brazil.  —  South  America  possesses  only  a 
single  plateau,  exclusive  of  the  series  of  high  countries  formed 
by  the  rising  of  the  Andes ;  this  is  the  plateau  of  Brazil,  a  vast 


I 


38 


446  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

triangle,  whose  boundaries  are  only  imperfectly  known  to  us, 
and  whose  base  skirts  the  Atlantic  coast  resting  on  the  Serra  do 
Mar. 

The  aspect  of  this  plateau  varies  perceptibly  from  one  extent 
of  territory  to  another.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  Serra  do  Mar  and 
the  Serra  do  Espinha^o  is  found  the  region  of  virgin  forests, 
remarkable  for  the  luxuriance  of  an  exuberant  vegetation,  the 
marvellous  size  of  the  trees,  and  the  deep  shade  and  silence 
wliich  pervade  them,  undisturbed  save  by  the  roaring  of  wild 
beasts  or  the  songs  of  birds.  Farther  west  stretches  the  region 
of  the  Cfampos,  an  immense  extent  of  plains,  sprinkled  with 
rounded  hillocks,  covered  only  with  a  grayish  grass,  and  among 
which  are  found,  scattered  here  and  there,  especially  in  the  hol- 
lows, clumps  of  deep-green  woods.  A  sandy  soil,  the  want  of 
springs,  or  the  drought,  and  the  winds  which  blow  violently  in 
the  Campos,  account  for  the  absence  of  vigorous  vegetation.  Still 
farther  west  are  the  Campos  Parecis^  north  of  the  Serra  dos 
Vertentes,  (province  of  Matto  Grosso,)  forming  a  sandy  desert 
of  unknown  extent,  and  similar,  it  is  said,  to  the  Great  Gobi,  or 
the  plateau  of  Thibet. 

Climate.  —  The  year  is  divided  into  two  entirely  distinct  sea- 
sons—  the  rainy,  which  commences  in  September,  and  the  dry, 
commencing  in  April.  Often,  during  the  continuance  of  the  lat- 
ter, not  a  single  drop  of  rain  is  known  to  fall,  the  grass  of  the 
fields  is  seared,  and  an  insupportable  heat  is  experienced ;  a  dry 
wind  irritates  the  nerves  and  chaps  the  lips,  and  no  one  can  with 
impunity  go  abroad  without  an  umbrella.  The  nights,  however, 
are  of  delicious  freshness,  and  often  even  cold. 

The  minerals^  as  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  remark,  are 
of  great  importance  in  these  countries;  they  are  principally 
diamonds  and  gold,  which  are  often  collected  in  the  same  sands, 
and  by  the  same  process  of  washing,  unless  the  quantity  and  value 
of  the  diamonds  cause  the  gold  dust  to  be  overlooked,  which, 
however,  very  rarely  occurs.  The  presence  of  this  precious 
stone  is  recognized  by  that  of  certain  flints,  which  usually  ac- 
company it,  and  which  are  called  the  slaves  of  the  diamonds. 
These  rich  deposits,  by  causing  agriculture  to  be  neglected  in 
most  of  the  central  provinces  of  Brazil,  have  become  the  origin 
of  idleness,  misery,  and  demoralization. 


THE   CONTINENT  OF   AMERICA.  447 

Vegetation.  —  No  language  can  describe  the  glory  of  the  Bra- 
zilian forests.  The  largest  trees  bear  brilliant  flowers ;  scarlet, 
purple,  blue,  rose  color,  and  golden  yellow  blend  with  every  pos- 
sible shade  of  green.  Majestic  trees  contrast  with  the  graceful 
palm.,  of  which  more  than  80  different  species  are  estimated  in 
Brazil,  from  those  which  scarcely  possess  any  trunk  to  those 
which  measure  more  than  130  feet  in  height;  or  with  the  arbo- 
rescent ferns,  the  creeping  passion  flowers  and  convolvulus,  some 
of  which,  as  thick  as  cables,  climb  to  the  tops  of  the  trees,  hang 
downward  to  the  ground,  and  rising  again,  extend  from  branch  to 
branch,  adorned  with  their  own  leaves  and  the  superb  flowers  of 
the  orchidece,  parasitic  plants,  which  nowhere  present  more  bril- 
liancy or  variety. 

The  vegetation  of  the  Campos  is,  on  the  contrary,  extremely 
monotonous.  The  thickets  are  often  composed  entirely  of  the 
araucaria  of  Brazil,  a  magnificent  tree,  which  is  a  worthy  repre- 
sentative of  the  genus  of  our  pines  and  firs.  This  is  a  most 
picturesque  plant,  remarkable  especially  in  its  adult  state  for  its 
perfectly  erect  trunk,  with  branches  in  the  form  of  candelabras, 
terminating,  so  to  speak,  in  an  immense  and  perfectly  even  plat- 
form of  a  dark-green  hue.  The  M'ood,  white,  marked  with  -very 
delicate  veins  of  a  vinous  rose  color,  is  harder,  heavier,  and  more 
compact  than  that  of  our  pines.  Its  cones,  or  fruit,  as  large  as 
the  head  of  an  infant,  contain  seeds  almost  half  as  long  as  the 
finger,  resembling  the  chestnut  in  taste,  but  more  delicate.  This 
tree  flourishes  in  sandy  soils,  and  indicates  the  places  least  suita- 
ble for  cultivation.  The  grass  of  the  Campos  is  usually  set  on 
fire  at  the  time  of  the  drought ;  it  is  even  customary  to  divide 
into  four  portions  the  pastures  designed  for  the  milch  cows,  and 
every  three  months  to  set  fire  to  one  of  the  portions,  in  order  to 
procure  for  these  animals  a  fresh  herbage  —  a  fine  and  very  beau- 
tiful green  grass,  which  somewhat  resembles  wheat  when  it  first 
shoots  from  the  earth.  As  the  fire  consumes  the  grass  of  the 
pastures  with  great  rapidity,  it  does  not  burn  the  trunks  of  the 
trees  that  are  interspersed  among  them,  but  merely  dries  their 
leaves,  which  are  soon  replaced  by  others. 

Considerable  portions  of  these  plateaus  have  been  devoted  to 
cultivation.     The   system  of  agriculture   is  unfortunately  that 


448  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

which  has  been  generally  adopted  throughout  Brazil.  Instead 
of  clearing  the  woods,  the  inhabitants  set  fire  to  them,  and  sow  in 
their  ashes  ;  after  a  few  crops  they  suffer  tlie  wood  to  grow  again, 
which  they  burn  in  like  manner,  until  the  earth,  refusing  to  pro- 
duce any  thing  but  grass,  is  abandoned. 

There  are,  however,  very  fertile  soils,  where  maize  yields  200 
fold,  and  kidney  beans  from  40  to  50  fold.  According  to  locali- 
ties, the  earth  produces,  in  greater  or  less  abundance,  maize, 
manioc,  rice,  kidney  beans,  and  other  legumes,  tobacco,  cotton, 
sugar,  and  coffee ;  but  the  latter  is  often  blighted  by  the  fix)st, 
which  is  a  proof  of  the  elevation  of  the  soil.  Beach  trees,  which 
bear  no  fruit  on  the  borders  of  the  sea,  (at  Rio  de  Janeiro,)  yield 
abundant  harvests  in  the  mountains ;  while  the  dwellings  in  the 
eastern  part  are  habitually  surrounded  by  bananas,  wheat  also 
succeeds  in  the  high  places. 

The  animals  are  not  the  least  important  portion  of  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  Brazilian  plateau.  The  natural  pastures  of  the 
Campos,  for  example,  feed  numerous  herds  of  horned  cattle,  which 
might  be  turned  to  great  account,  if  communications  with  the 
ports  of  the  eastern  coasts  were  not  obstructed  by  the  abominable 
condition  of  the  roads.  The  extremely  high  price  of  salt  is  also 
an  obstacle  to  the  cattle  breeders.  They  supply  this  deficiency  in 
certain  places  by  conducting  the  droves  from  time  to  time  to 
mineral  springs,  for  which  the  latter  seem  to  have  a  very  keen 
thirst.  Sheep  are  also  raised,  both  for  the  wool  and  the  flesh ; 
but  as  no  pains  are  taken  to  guard  them,  they  are  often  scattered 
and  destroyed  by  wild  or  domestic  dogs.  Mules  are  much  more 
employed  than  horses ;  considerable  numbers  of  swine  are  raised 
in  different  places,  whose  lard  is  to  the  Brazihans  what  butter  or 
oil  is  to  us. 

Wild  animals  do  not  appear  to  be  very  abundant,  especially  in 
the  Campos;  and  for  more  complete  details  we  would  refer  the 
reader  to  the  article  upon  the  plains  of  Brazil.  The  principal 
are  jaguars,  or  ounces,  extremely  and  universally  feared,  pumas 
and  tapirs,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken  in  connection  with 
Indo-China,  a  species  of  wild  hogs,  whose  upper  lip,  elongated  in 
the  form  of  a  proboscis,  has  won  for  them  the  surname  o^  Ameri' 
can  elephants.    The  size  of  this  animal  sometimes  exceeds  that 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  449 

of  the  ass,  and  it  was  the  largest  quadruped  of  South  America  at 
the  period  when  this  portion  of  the  new  world  was  discovered. 


Tapir,  or  American  Elephant. 

Its  flesh  is  hard  and  tough  ;  the  savages,  however,  eat  it ;  but 
that  for  which  this  animal  (now  become  rare)  is  especially  prized, 
is  its  skin,  which,  when  dry,  is  so  thick  and  hard  that  bucklers 
are  made  of  it,  which  are  impenetrable  to  arrows.  The  peccari 
is  peculiar  to  South  America,  finding  retreats  in  hollow  trees 
or  rocky  caves.  This  is  one  of  the  best  species  of  game  fur- 
nished by  this  country.  The  glands  which  the  peccari  has  on 
its  back  exhale  at  all  times,  but  especially  when  irritated,  a  dis- 
agreeable odor,  similar  to  that  of  garlic,  which  betrays  its  pres- 


Peccan. 


ence.     If  this  excrescence  is   not   speedily  removed   after   the 
animal  is  slain,   the  flesh    is    so   impregnated  with   this   flavor 
that  it  cannot  be  eaten.     They  defend  themselves  courageously, 
38* 


450  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

and  bite  desperately;  they  are  not,  however,  difficult  to  tame. 
A  whitish  band,  which  descends  obliquely  from  each  shoul- 
der, has  obtained  for  one  of  the  species  the  name  of  necklaced 
jteccari. 

The  population  is  composed  of  Indians,  whose  number  is 
gradually  diminishing,  and  who  are  scarcely  formidable.  Many 
live  in  a  state  of  almost  complete  nudity.  Their  skin  is  brown, 
their  figure  broad,  flat,  and  almost  square;  their  eyes  a  little 
elevated  at  the  outer  angles ;  their  hair,  which  is  straight  and 
black,  is  cut  square  over  the  forehead,  and  hangs  loosely  over 
the  shoulders;  their  body  is  usually  tattooed  or  painted;  their 
weapons  consist  of  a  bow  and  arrows.  They  are,  for  the  most 
part,  idolaters.  The  white  or  mulatto  population  are  generally 
incurably  indolent  and  slothful,  abandoned  to  the  most  shameful 
ignorance,  and  according  to  the  statement  of  a  distinguished  trav- 
eller, (M.  Aug.  Saint  Hilaire,)  "  substitute  for  religion  absurd 
superstitions :  these  people  believe  in  sorcerers,  ghosts,  spectres, 
and  familiar  spirits,  concerning  which  they  relate  a  thousand 
absurdities;  they  wear  on  their  necks  amulets  and  talismans. 
Reared  amid  an  almost  total  absence  of  religious  sentiments,  the 
children,"  continues  this  same  traveller,  "  are  early  corrupted ; 
they  are  never  seen  playing  together,  and  are  alike  destitute  of 
gayety  and  innocence.  Youth  presents  a  still  sadder  spectacle, 
and  knows  only  guilty  pleasures  ;  arrived  at  manhood,  they  are 
characterized  by  torpor,  ennui,  and  the  love  of  brandy  sweetened 
with  sugar.  Most  of  the  inliabitants  being  too  poor  to  obtain  from 
the  clergy  a  marriage  license,  for  which  they  are  obliged  to  pay 
75,  llo,  and  even  135  francs,  remain  unmarried,  and  lead  dis- 
orderly lives.  And  the  priests  themselves,"  affirms  M.  Saint 
Ililaire,  "  authorize  by  their  guilty  deportment  the  excesses  of 
the  simple  believers."  This  is  one  of  the  most  corrupt  populations 
of  South  America. 

Sect.  6.  Plains  of  America.  —  Patagonia.  —  This 
name  is  given  to  the  country  which,  at  the  southern  extremity  of 
America,  extends  between  the  Andes  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  as 
far  as  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  This  country,  very  little  known  to 
civilized  nations,  is  generally  composed  of  cold  and  arid  plains, 
destitute  of  forests  and  cultivation,  but  not  absolutely  sterile,  as 


THE   CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  451 

much  excellent  pasturage  is  there  met  with.  In  many  places  the 
ground  is  covered  with  incrustations  of  salt  as  white  as  snow ; 
near  the  sea  are  found  many  lagoons  and  salt  marshes.  In  the 
western  portion  only,  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  the  country  loses 
its  gloomy  and  monotonous  aspect,  and  is  clothed  with  thick  for- 
ests ;  elsewhere  little  is  encountered  but  stunted  trees  or  thorny 
bushes. 

Climate.  —  This  inhospitable  country,  incessantly  swept  by  the 
icy  winds  from  the  Andes  or  the  polar  seas,  is  almost  throughout 
the  year  subjected  to  extreme  cold,  much  more  intense  at  the 
south  of  the  southern  hemisphere  than  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere at  an  equal  latitude.  On  the  other  hand,  the  heat  is 
excessive  during  the  summer  months.  The  air  is,  however,  quite 
dry  and  serene  on  the  eastern  coast,  whereas  in  the  western 
region  the  rains  are  almost  continual. 

Animals,  —  These  plains,  although  of  such  meagre  vegetation, 
nourish  (especially  towards  the  north)  a  great  number  of  oxen 
and  wild  horses,  hares,  foxes,  guanacos  or  wild  lamas,  and  the 
struthio  rhea.  This  bird,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  South 
America,  is  often  designated  by  the  name  of  the  American  ostrich, 
although  it  is  scarcely  half  the  size  of  the  African  bird,  and  it 
has  three  toes  instead  of  two.  They  live  only  in  the  open  plains, 
and  usually  go  in  pairs,  sometimes  in  numerous  troops.  Their 
wings  are  too  short  to  enable  them  to  rise  above  the  ground,  but 
they  prove  available  for  augmenting  the  rapidity  of  their  course, 
which  is  such  that  they  can  scarcely  be  overtaken  even  with  good 
horses.  They  subsist  on  seeds  and  grass ;  the  females  hatch  1 6 
or  17  eggs,  unless  several  of  them  unite  to  hatch  together.  They 
may  be  tamed  without  much  difficulty,  and  it  has  been  seriously 
proposed  to  acclimate  them  in  European  poultry  yards. 

Population.  —  The  Patagonians  are  half-savage  Indians,  who 
excited  the  admiration  of  the  first  voyagers  by  their  lofty  figures, 
and  whom  the  exaggerations  of  rumor  had  soon  constituted  a  race 
of  giants.  It  is  true  that  they  are  generally  of  great  stature, 
being  ordinarily  six  feet  in  height,  and  sometimes  seven ;  their 
shoulders  are  broad,  and  their  constitutions  vigorous ;  they  have 
long,  black,  rough,  and  coarse  hair,  .prominent  cheek  bones,  and 
sooty  skins.     They  have  no  other  houses  than  tents  of  guanaco 


452  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

skins,  and  lead  a  nomadic  and  miserable  life,  often  a  prey  to 
hunger,  devoured  by  vermin,  and  covered  with  revolting  filth. 
They  frequently  descend  upon  the  white  colonies  for  the  purpose 
of  seizing  and  carrying  away  their  cattle,  and  especially  their 
horses.  They  are  excellent  riders,  and  subsist  principally  on  the 
hunt  of  the  ostriches,  and  more  especially  of  the  guanacos,  which 
they  capture  by  means  of  the  hola,  or  lasso.  The  bola,  as  its 
name  indicates,  is  a  ball  attached  to  the  end  of  a  long  strap :  the 
rider  dexterously  flings  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  interlace  the 
feet  of  the  animal,  and  cause  it  to  trip.  The  lasso  (noose)  is  a 
very  strong  band  of  leather,  one  extremity  of  which  forms  a 
noose,  or  slip-knot,  which  the  rider,  mounted  on  horseback,  casts 
so  adroitly  around  the  neck,  horns,  or  legs  of  the  animal,  that  he 
scarcely  ever  misses  his  aim ;  the  entangled  animal  runs,  until 
suddenly  arrested  by  the  strap,  (the  other  end  of  which  is  attached 
to  the  saddle  of  the  horse,)  when  it  is  precipitated  on  the  ground. 
The  Patagonians  comprise  many  tribes,  which  differ  very  sensibly 
in  respect  to  complexion,  size,  and  manners.  They  are  generally 
rather  pacific  than  malicious,  and  although  well  armed  with  lances, 
bows,  and  arrows,  they  rarely  attack  the  mariners  who  disembark 
on  their  coasts.  If  they  perceive  a  vessel  approaching  the  shore, 
they  flock  thither  only  to  beg  brandy  and  tobacco,  of  which,  like 
all  savages,  they  are. passionately  fond.  Vague  and  gross  super- 
stitions constitute  their  religion. 

The  Pampas  of  La  Plata.  —  North  of  Patagonia,  be- 
tween the  Andes  and  the  mountains  of  Brazil,  are  plains  of  im- 
mense extent  and  of  the  most  striking  aspect,  known  under 
the  general  name  of  Pampas  of  La  Plata.  They  comprise,  in  the 
southern  part,  the  pampas,  so  called,  a  species  of  Asiatic  steppes, 
covered  with  reddish  earth  and  a  coarse  turf,  smooth  as  the  sea, 
without  a  stone  or  bush,  internipted  only  here  and  there  by 
moving  sands,  marshes,  and  rivers,  freighted  with  salt.  On  all 
sides  extend  a  boundless  horizon  and  a  monotonous  uniformity 
which  profoundly  sadden  the  beholder.  At  the  foot  of  the  An- 
des the  soil  shelves  so  little  that  many  rivers  there  find  no  outlet, 
which  at  the  time  of  high  flood  gives  rise  to  the  formation  of  lakes 
or  lagoons  of  considerable  extent,  and  to  inundations  which  cause 
the  destruction  of  thousands  of  cattle.     Towards  the  north-west 


THE   CONTINENT   OF   AMERICA.  453 

IS  the  Great  Cliaco,  a  vast  desert  of  sand,  covered  with  cactuses 
and  aloes  ;  at  tlie  north-east,  on  approaching  the  BraziHan  Moun- 
tains, forests  of  incalculable  extent  are  encountered. 

The  climate  is  generally  temperate  and  very  salubrious  ;  thus 
the  first  explorers  bestowed  upon  the  country  the  name  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  (good  air,  or  good  airs,)  which  its  principal  city  still  retains. 
In  summer,  however,  the  heat  is  often  excessive,  while  in  winter 
(that  is  to  say,  in  June,  July,  and  August)  the  cold  south  winds 
are  so  severe  as  to  freeze  the  surface  of  the  water ;  sometimes, 
also,  at  this  season,  the  hurricanes  are  terrible  ;  rain  descends  in 
torrents,  accompanied  by  fearful  thunder  and  lightning ;  never- 
theless snow  is  rarely  seen  at  Buenos  Ayres. 

The  vegetation  varies  much  in  different  localities.  The  soil 
of  the  pampas  is  sandy,  and  in  many  places  incrusted  with  salt 
and  saltpetre.  It  would  generally  be  susceptible  of  cultivation, 
and  these  plains,  so  thinly  sprinkled  with  towns  and  villages, 
might  maintain  an  immense  multitude  of  inhabitants.  For  a  con- 
siderable distance  west  of  Buenos  Ayres,  the  soil  is  completely 
covered  with  grass,  trefoil,  and  also  with  thistles,  introduced  from 
Europe,  and  which  often  rise  ten  feet  in  height,  forming  thickets 
so  dense  and  thorny  that  they  are  almost  impenetrable.  Farther 
west,  the  pampas  are  clothed  with  long  and  beautiful  grass, 
blended  with  magnificent  flowers,  and  furnish  an  inexhaustible 
nourishment  to  thousands  of  cattle.  At  the  foot  of  the  Andes  are 
thick  copses  of  thorny  bushes  and  dwai-f  trees,  intermingled  with 
ravines  and  rocks. 

The  beautiful  plains  of  the  central  portion  produce,  in  abun- 
dance," in  the  cultivated  districts,  maize,  wheat,  barley,  olives, 
cotton,  tobacco,  manioc,  coffee,  sugar,  and  indigo.  The  grains 
and  fruits  of  Europe  succeed  perfectly,  especially  peaches,  but 
they  degenerate  very  rapidly.  Even  here,  agriculture  has  gen- 
erally been  neglected  for  the  rearing  of  cattle,  the  principal  wealth 
of  these  countries. 

The  forests  of  the  northern  part  contain  fine  timber  or  dye- 
woods  ;  also  many  palm  trees ;  the  algaroha,  a  species  of  acacia, 
which  produces  clusters  of  berries  of  which  the  Indians  make 
bread  ;  as  likewise  a  strong  fermented  liquor;  and  the Jerbatnate, 
or  Paraguay  tea,  a  kind  of  holly,  (ilex  paraguayensis^)  whose 


454  THE  GEOGRAPHY   OF  NATtJUE. 

young  stalks  and  small  leaves  are  universally  employed  in  South 
America,  like  the  China  tea,  in  the  decoction  of  a  beverage.  In 
the  city  of  Montevideo  (east  of  Buenos  Ayres)  and  on  the  coasts 
of  Brazil  the  mate  is  usually  drank  from  a  calabash,  or  small,  oval 
gourd  ;  it  is  imbibed  through  a  pipe,  or  small  tube  of  tin,  silver, 
or  gold. 

The  animals  are,  however,  the  most  striking  feature  presented 
by  the  vast  plains  surrounding  the  River  La  Plata.  The  horses 
and  homed  cattle^  which  were  originally  introduced  by  the  Span- 
ish conquerors,  have  since  multiplied  prodigiously,  and  become 
more  or  less  wild.  The  horses  are  sometimes  encountered  in 
troops  of  more  than  10,000.  Each  stallion  gathers  around  itself 
a  certain  number  of  mares  and  young  colts,  which  it  jealously 
watches  and  courageously  protects.  During  the  day  these  fami- 
lies unite  to  feed  in  common  ;  but  every  evening  the  males  reas- 
semble their  little  band,  and  with  it  seek  their  retreat  for  the 
night.  Each  troop  interdicts  the  approach  of  foreign  hordes  to 
its  domain ;  if  the  fodder  becomes  insufficient,  all  take  up  their 
march  under  the  conduct  of  their  chiefs.  These  thousands  of 
horses  traversing  boundless  plains,  and  shaking  the  ground  beneath 
their  cadenced  trot,  present  an  admirable  and  terrible  spectacle. 
Preceded  by  scouts,  they  move  in  close  columns,  which  nothing 
can  sunder.  The  column  is  subdivided  into  squads,  each  com- 
posed of  a  male  and  a  certain  number  of  females.  If  the  van- 
guard announces  the  approach  of  a  caravan  or  body  of  cavalry, 
tlie  males  which  are  at  the  head  immediately  detach  themselves, 
advance  to  meet  the  enemy,  and  then,  at  the  signal  of  one  of  them, 
the  whole  band  set  forth  in  the  direction  indicated  by  heavy  and 
prolonged  neighing,  inviting  the  domestic  horses  to  join  them ;  and 
indeed,  unless  travellers  speedily  secure  the  latter,  on  the  approach 
of  the  alzados,  they  will  assuredly  make  their  escape.  Even 
horses  which  have  been  previously  tamed,  and  belong  to  a  pro- 
prietor, will  soon  become  almost  wild  again;  and  when  their  ser- 
vices are  in  requisition,  he  can  only  capture  them  by  the  aid  of  a 
good  horse  and  lasso,  in  the  same  manner  as  he  w^ould  pursue  the 
wild  hoi-ses.  Wild  oxen  are  so  numerous  and  of  so  little  value 
in  the  pampas,  that  they  are  generally  killed  merely  for  the  sake 
of  their  hide,  homs,  and  tallow ;  for  although  the  flesh  constitutes 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  455 

almost  the  sole  food  of  the  shepherds  of  these  countries,  so  little 
account  is  made  of  it  that  it  is  often  abandoned  to  beasts  of  prey. 
In  certain  places,  however,  this  meat,  cut  in  thin  slices,  is  dried 
in  the  sun,  and  afterwards  exported  to  other  countries.  These 
oxen,  as  well  as  the  hogs  which  range  in  companies  in  the  forests, 
are  also  caught  by  means  of  the  bola  and  lasso. 

The  horned  cattle  are  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Pampas  what 
the  reindeer  and  camel  are  to  the  Laplanders  and  Arabs  ;  the 
flesh  is  the  basis  of  their  food  ;  the  skins  are  exported,  and  this 
exportation  amounts  in  some  years  to  more  than  a  million  hides  ; 
of  the  horns  are  made  vases,  jugs,  pitchers,  combs,  and  spoons  ; 
of  their  leather,  cordage,  mattresses,  and  huts ;  the  fat  is  used 
in  the  preparation  of  food ;  soap  and  candles  are  made  of  the  tal- 
low ;  the  bones  serve  for  firewood  in  many  places  where  the 
latter  is  wanting,  and  they  are  made  to  blaze  by  means  of  tallow; 
the  skulls  answer  the  purpose  of  chairs  in  the  country  houses. 
After  the  example  of  the  German  and  Scotch  colonies  established 
at  the  south  of  Buenos  Ayres,  the  inhabitants  are  begiiming  to 
make  use  of  the  milk  for  the  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese. 
Unfortunately  the  herds  are  constantly  harassed  by  wild  dogs, 
which  have  multiplied  to  such  a  degree  that  expeditions  have 
often  been  undertaken  for  destroying  them.  These  dogs,  from 
fear  of  the  jaguars,  always  move  in  numerous  bands,  conducted 
by  the  old  males.  They  seem  to  yield  obedience  to  a  species 
of  discipline,  and  to  have  a  mutual  understanding  for  defend- 
ing each  other,  and  for  pursuing,  attacking,  and  afterwards 
devouring  game.  But  once  taken  in  snares,  or  otherwise,  only  a 
few  days  are  required  for  them  to  become  accustomed  to  servi- 
tude, and  even  attached  to  their  keeper. 

Besides  the  American  ostrich,  the  open  plains  of  these  regions 
contain  a  certain  number  of  remarkable  animals.  Such,  for  ex- 
ample, is  the  viscache^  also  named  tucutuco^  on  account  of  a  very 
Bonorous  note  to  which  it  gives  utterance  during  every  moment 
of  the  day.  This  is  a  quadruped  of  6  or  12  jwunds  weight,  almost 
as  large  as  the  badger,  with  a  thickset  body  covered  with  long 
and  soft  hair.  This  animal,  which  subsists  on  the  roots  of  plants, 
possesses  somewhat  the  habits  of  the  mole  or  rabbit.  A  little 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  viscaches  dig  vast  burrows, 


456  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

with  numerous  galleries  and  spacious  storehouses,  which  they 
stock  with  grass  and  provisions  for  the  inclement  season.  These 
burrows  are  united  and  grouped  together  like  the  houses  of  a  vil- 
lage, and  the  viscaches  may  be  seen  issuing  thence  in  great  num- 
bers as  soon  as  the  sun  has  set.  Considerable  spaces  are  so 
completely  undermined  by  these  animals,  that  they  become  posi- 
tively dangerous  to  riders.  The  viscaches  are  in  these  countries 
what  the  warrens  are  to  the  Europeans ;  for  the  flesh  of  these 
animals  furnishes  excellent  food,  and  their  hair  serves  also  to 
make  very  good  hats. 

With  these  quadrupeds  we  naturally  couple  the  agoutis,  pretty 
animals  which  represent  in  South  America  the  European  hares 
and  rabbits,  both  in  their  gait  and  habits,  and  in  the  quality  of 
their  flesh,  which  is  esteemed  excellent  game.  They  exist  rather 
in  the  forests  at  the  north  of  these  plains  than  in  the  pampas, 
properly  so  called,  subsist  on  barks  and  fruits,  and  retreat  into 
the  trunks  of  hollow  trees.  They  are  easily  reared  in  captivity, 
but  never  lose  their  natural  timidity. 

In  these  same  forests  of  the  northern  plains  of  La  Plata,  or 
Paraguayy  not  only  jaguars,  pumas,  stags,  deer,  and  monkeys  of 
various  species  are  met  with,  but  also  the  wild  cat,  known  under 
the  name  oipampa  cat ;  a  species  of  wolf-dog  with  a  mane,  which 
lives  alone  by  itself,  swims  well,  and  hunts  small  game,  but 
is  not  a  dangerous  animal,  as  it  is  less  bold  than  the  wolves  of  the 
north,  and  does  not  attack  cattle ;  the  tapir,  of  which  we  have 
recently  spoken;  and  the  tatons,  whose  head,  body,  and  tail  are 
alike  covered  with  a  hard  and  scaly  buckler,  with  small  compart- 
ments resembhng  paving  stones.  The  flesh  of  these  animals  is 
very  delicate,  and  they  are  the  objects  of  an  active  chase.  For 
self-defence  they  roll  themselves  up  in  a  ball  like  the  pangolin, 
but  the  teeth  of  dogs  and  carnivorous  animals  easily  find  entrance 
between  the  different  divisions  of  their  buckler.  They  are,  more- 
over, very  mild  and  inoffensive  creatures,  which  seldom  go  abroad 
except  at  night  in  search  of  food,  living  habitually  in  burrows, 
which  they  dig  with  the  greatest  rapidity,  whenever  they  are  un- 
der the  necessity  of  concealing  themselves  from  their  enemies. 
Other  animals,  known  by  the  name  of  armadilloes,  differ  but  little 
from  the  tatons.     Another  quadruped  of  these  regions,  which, 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  457 

like  the  preceding,  belongs  to  the  great  family  of  the  edentata, 
but  is  not  in  like  manner  protected  by  a  scaly  cuirass,  is  the  ant- 
eater.    This  animal,  of  the  size  of  a  large  dog,  low  on  the  legs,  of 


h 


Anteaier. 

a  bix)wn  color,  with  a  black  oblique  line  boi'dered  with  white  on 
each  shoulder,  is  remarkable  for  its  large  tail  covered  with  long 
black  hair,  and  especially  for  its  slender  and  elongated  head,  ter- 
minating in  a  long,  rounded  muzzle.  When,  after  the  manner  of 
the  pangolin,  it  has  with  its  claws  effected  an  opening  in  the 
dwelling  of  the  ants  or  termites,  it  protrudes  from  its  muzzle  a 
tongue,  of  the  size  of  a  quill,  and  more  than  a  foot  long,  which  it 
introduces  into  the  aperture ;  then,  moving  it  in  every  direction, 
and  writhing  it  like  an  earth  worm,  it  suddenly  withdmws  it,  and 
swallows  the  ants  which  have  been  retained  by  its  glutinous  sa- 
liva. This  is  also  a  peaceable  animal,  which  lives  solitary,  issues 
only  by  night,  and  greatly  fears  the  light  of  the  sun,  to  protect 
itself  from  which,  it  endeavors,  it  is  said,  to  make  its  bushy  tail 
serve  the  purpose  of  a  parasol ;  it  moves  clumsily,  does  not  climb 
trees,  but  with  its  powerful  claws  defends  itself  valiantly  against 
its  enemies,  even  the  jaguar.  Taken  young,  it  is  susceptible  of 
being  tamed. 

The  population  is  composed  of  whites,  of  Spanish  origin,  of 
Gauchos,  or  Mestizos,  of  white  and  Indian  blood,  and  of  Indians. 
The  whites,  or  Spaniards,  chiefly  inhabit  the  cities ;  they  have 
generally  a  muscular  figure ;  their  well-formed  limbs  indicate 
vigor  ;  they  are  fond  of  wearing  garments  of  brilliant  colors,  and 
39 


458  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

their  vest  buttons  are  usually  silver ;  their  large  black  eyes  seem 
to  emit  fire,  their  teeth  are  white  as  ivory,  and  a  smile  of  self- 
satisfaction  constantly  wreathes  their  lips.  The  whites  form 
scarcely  a  fourth  part  of  the  population  ;  some  among  them  pos- 
sess in  the  country  farms  very  distant  from  each  other,  and  always 
fortified  against  the  attacks  of  the  Indians.  The  proprietors, 
even  those  in  moderate  circumstances,  own  no  less  than  50,000 
head  of  cattle,  which  wander  at  random  in  the  pampas ;  10,000 
or  20,000  constitute  but  a  trifling  possession.  The  Gauchos  are 
are  almost  all  shepherds.  They  have  enough  European  blood  in 
their  veins  to  esteem  themselves  very  superior  to  the  Indians,  of 
whom  they  are  deadly  enemies.  Left  to  himself  from  his  infancy, 
the  Gaucho  mounts  his  horse  at  the  age  of  four  yeai-s,  and  aids 
his  pai-ents  in  driving  the  cattle  to  pasture.  In  youth,  the  Gaucho, 
always  on  horseback,  passes  his  time  in  the  ostrich  or  jaguar 
chase,  or  in  endeavoring  to  capture  wild  hoi-ses  with  the  lasso  and 
break  them  to  service.  Indefatigable  in  his  expeditions,  he  spends 
the  night  in  the  open  air,  with  no  other  covering  than  his  cloak, 
no  drink  but  water,  and  no  other  food  than  a  slice  of  beef.  Thus 
his  constitution  becomes  inured  to  the  severest  fatigue,  and  ena- 
bles him  to  accomplish  incredible  distances  on  hoi-seback.  Upon 
rising  in  the  morning,  his  first  thought  is  of  his  coui^ser;  he 
springs  upon  his  back,  bends  him  to  all  his  whims  and  caprices, 
and  can  do  nothing  without  him.  If,  indeed,  he  happens  to  pass 
a  church,  he  will,  jjerhaps,  pause  a  few  moments  to  listen  to  the 
priest,  but  does  not  set  his  foot  on  the  ground. 

Proud  of  his  independence  and  physical  superiority,  the 
Gaucho  little  heeds  the  misery  which  invades  his  dilapidated 
cabin,  the  disorder  which  reigns  there,  and  the  filth  which  is  ex- 
posed to  view.  Accustomed  to  slaughter  animals,  he  quite  as 
readily  slays  his  fellow-man,  but  always  in  cold  blood,  and  with- 
out anger.  Race  courses  for  determining  the  merits  of  the 
horses  form  the  principal  recreation  of  his  indolent  and  aimless 
life ;  the  frequenting  of  taverns,  and  games  of  cards,  together 
with  the  pleasures  of  revenge  and  political  revolutions,  constitute 
his  chief  passions.  When  engaged  in  play,  the  Gauchos  are 
usually  seated  on  their  feet,  having  their  long  knife,  from  which 
they  are  oever  separated,  stuck  in  the  ground  at  their  sides. 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  459 

always  prepared  to  use  it  against  those  who  presume  to  cheat 
or  provoke  them  in  any  manner.  These  species  of  American 
Tartars,  strangers  to  all  instruction  and  to  all  true  civilization, 


Gaiicho. 

have,  however,  the  virtue  of  savages — hospitality.  They  also 
possess  sagacity,  as  likewise  an  extraordinary  development  of  the 
organs  of  the  senses. 

Every  Gaucho  is  capable  of  following  a  track.  In  the  midst 
of  the  vast  plains,  where  roads  and  paths  intersect  each  other  in 
every  direction,  and  where  the  cattle  roam  at  will,  he  can  dis- 
tinguish the  trail  of  an  animal  among  a  thousand ;  he  can  assure 
himself  by  the  footprints  of  a  horse  whether  he  is  wild  or  domes- 
ticated, loaded  or  unloaded,  and  can  determine  the  time  of  his 
passage.     If  a  theft  has  been  committed  under  cover  of  the 


460  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

night,  and  the  rastreador  is  summoned  the  next  morning,  he  will 
unhesitatingly  pursue  the  footsteps  of  the  thief  across  the  paths 
and  plains,  cross  or  ascend  the  rivers,  and  arrive,  in  spite  of 
obstacles,  at  the  house  of  the  man,  whom  he  will  at  once  stigma- 
tize as  the  culprit.  The  Gauchos  are  the  most  terrible  and  active 
instruments  of  the  incessant  revolutions,  which  overthrow,  demor- 
alize, and  ruin  the  unfortunate  republics  of  Eio  de  la  Plata. 
They  belong,  as  also  the  whites,  to  the  Catholic  religion;  but 
judging  from  the  picture  portrayed  by  travellers  of  their  general 
manners,  it  would  seem  that  the  priests  enjoy  very  little  consid- 
eration, and  that  the  religious  sentiment  exercises  but  a  feeble 
influence. 

As  for  the  Indians,  now  greatly  diminished  in  number,  and 
belonging  to  many  different  tribes,  some  are  subjugated,  con- 
verted to  CathoHcism,  and  devote  themselves  to  agriculture  or 
the  rearing  of  cattle ;  others,  such  as  the  Puelches,  or  Pampas, 
pass  their  lives  on  horseback,  and  are  occupied  solely  with  war 
and  plunder.  They  are  very  dexterous  in  the  use  of  the  hola, 
go  almost  naked  both  winter  and  summer,  and  detest  every  thing 
which  pertains  to  civilization,  except  strong  liquors,  for  which 
they  are  always  ready  to  rob  themselves  of  every  thing,  and 
which,  by  enfeebling  their  constitution,  often  occasion  the  prema- 
ture termination  of  their  existence.  The  famous  missions  of  the 
Jesuits  among  the  Paraguay  Indians,  so  much  discussed  within 
the  last  century,  have  had  no  lasting  results  in  the  civihzation  of 
these  unfortunate  tribes,  and  the  population  of  the  copper  race 
has  continued  to  diminish  gradually. 

Maritime  Plain  of  Brazil.  —  The  maritime  plain  of 
Brazil,  at  first  extremely  contracted  between  the  Serra  do  Mar 
and  the  coast,  gradually  widens  in  proportion  as  we  advance  north- 
wards, towards  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  River.  Few  countries 
present  such  richness  and  variety — magnificent  plantations  side  by 
side  with  primitive  forests  ;  and  tribes  of  Indians,  still  cannibals, 
bordering,  so  to  speak,  upon  flourishing  cities,  teeming  with  the 
luxury,  industry,  and  wealth  of  Europe.  This  is  the  most  im- 
portant portion  of  Brazil,  and  where  the  population,  large  cities, 
and  commerce  have  principally  accumulated. 

The  climate,  although  somewhat  tempered  by  the  proximity  of 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMMIICA.  461 

tlie  sea  and  the  extent  of  the  forests,  is,  however,  excessively- 
hot  ;  the  summer  is  insupportable  to  those  Europeans  who  cannot 
resort  for  a  few  months  to  the  heights.  The  air  is  not  generally 
unhealthy,  but  the  yellow  fever  from  time  to  time  causes  terrible 
ravages.  The  dry  season  lasts  from  September  to  February,  and 
the  rainy  from  May  to  September. 

Vegetation.  —  Were  it  not  desirable  to  avoid  repetition,  we 
should  again  dilate,  in  connection  with  the  maritime  plain  of 
Brazil,  upon  the  magnificent  vegetation  of  its  virgin  forests. 
Next  should  be  mentioned  the  innumerable  quantity  of  banana 
trees,  which  do  not  flourish  in  the  dense  shade  of  the  forests,  but 
may  be  encountered  wherever  there  is  sunshine ;  palm  trees,  of 
which  the  most  useful  and  the  most  widely  diffused  species,  the 
cocoa  nut,  is  not  originally  from  Brazil ;  the  manioc  root,  whose 
farina  constitutes  the  principal  food  of  the  poorer  classes,  and  of 
which  Brazil  appears  to  have  been  the  primitive  country ;  kidney 
heans,  which  are  the  most  popular  legume  in  this  country ;  maize, 
melons,  ignames,  batatas,  and  another  plant  of  the  same  genus, 
whose  tubercles  are  somewhat  similar  to  potatoes,  and  very 
wholesome,  possessing  the  taste  of  the  artichoke ;  rice,  which  is 
said  to  be  indigenous  in  certain  regions  of  South  America,  and 
which  thrives  in  all  the  portions  of  the  plain  which  are  easily 
watered.  Besides  these  alimentary  substances,  properly  so  called, 
Brazil  also  furnishes  colonial  commodities  of  considerable  impor- 
tance ;  coffee  and  sugar,  whose  production  increases  yearly,  and 
tobacco  and  cotton,  in  smaller  quantities,  but  of  a  certain  repu- 
tation. 

The  forests  of  Brazil  are  very  rich  in  medicinal  plants  and 
gums,  as  also  in  dye  and  building  woods.  Besides  the  sarsapa- 
rilla,  the  caoutchouc,  and  certain  varieties  of  cinchona,  or  Jesuits' 
bark,  (plants  which  are  already  known  to  us,)  may  be  named  the 
ipecacuanha,  whose  long  roots,  of  the  size  of  a  quill,  contain  an 
important  medicinal  principle,  employed  principally  as  an  emetic, 
and  the  cassia,  {cassia  fistula,)  a  beautiful  tree,  of  the  aspect  of 
the  walnut,  whose  fruits,  in  the  form  of  pods  a  foot  and  a  half 
long,  yield  a^  reddish,  sweet,  and  tart  pulp,  found  in  a  great  num- 
ber of  distinct  cells,  and  which  enters  into  the  composition  of  dif- 
ferent diet  drinks,  and  furnishes  a  very  mild  cathartic 
39* 


462  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

Among  other  celebrated  dyewoods  should  be  specified  that 
which  has  given  its  name  to  the  whole  country — the  Brazil  wood, 
which  yields  a  beautiful  dye  for  wool,  cotton,  &c.  This  wood, 
which  is  the  object  of  an  extensive  commerce,  is  furnished  by  a 
tree  of  the  size  of  the  oak,  of  an  unsightly  appearance,  with  red 
flowers  resembling  those  of  the  lily  of  the  valley ;  it  grows  among 
rocky  and  dry  soils,  and  yields  important  revenues  to  the  Bra- 
zilian government.  It  is  also  called  Pernambuco  wood,  from  the 
name  of  the  principal  port  whence  shipments  of  it  are  made. 

Animals  abound  in  the  maritime  plain  as  in  all  the  rest  of 
Brazil.  Domestic  animals,  oxen,  horses,  sheep,  and  hogs,  are  not 
very  abundant,  except  in  the  extremely  southern  portion,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  pampas.  But  the  common  jaguar,  the 
jaguarete,  or  black  tiger,  the  cougar,  the  Brazilian  wolf,  wild 
dogs  and  cats  are  quite  numerous.  Among  the  inoffensive  ani- 
mals, which  are  the  ordinary  prey  of  wild  beasts  or  of  man,  may 
be  mentioned  many  stags,  agoutis,  tatons,  anteaters,  peccaries, 
(all  animals  which  have  already  come  under  our  notice,)  besides 
pacas,  small  quadrupeds  of  a  brown  color,  with  white  and  spotted 
transversal  bands,  which  live  in  burrows  on  the  borders  of  rivers, 
subsist  on  fruits,  are  easily  tamed,  and  whose  flesh  is  delicious ; 
and  Guinea  pigs,  much  smaller,  and  almost  senseless  quadrupeds, 


Guinea  Pig. 

which  are  now  widely  disseminated  in  Europe,  where  they  multi- 
ply to  an  extraordinary  degree ;  the  fur  of  this  animal  is 
usually  tri-colored,  (brown,  white,  and  yellow ;)  its  flesh  is  con- 
sidered excellent. 

Singular  animals,  which  are  frequently  met  with  in  the  forests 
of  Brazil,  are  the  sloths,  (or  tardigrades,)  which  somewhat  resem- 
ble deformed  and  benumbed  monkeys.  Much  compassion  has 
been  wasted  upon  them  by  naturalists,  who  have  examined  them 
on  the  ground,  for  nothmg  can  then  equal  their  awkwardness, 


i 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  463 

and  no  animal  appears  more  ungraceful,  clumsy,  and  helpless. 
If  they  attempt  to  walk,  the  disproportionate  length  of  their  fore 
feet  compels  them  to  drag  themselves  along  on  their  knees ;  if 
they  remain  seated,  their  mouth  is  upturned  to  the  sky,  and  they 
can  neither  drink  nor  feed  on  the  ground.  But  all  these  imper- 
fections disappear  when  found  in  their  proper  element  on  trees, 


Sloth. 

and  they  even  afford  us  a  fresh  proof  of  the  admirable  wisdom 
with  which  divine  Providence  establishes  harmony  between  the 
internal  and  external  organs  of  a  being  and  the  conditions  of  its 
existence.  The  sloth  passes  its  life  on  trees,  whose  leaves  con- 
stitute its  only  nourishment,  and  enable  it  to  dispense  with  water ; 
it  transports  itself  from  bough  to  bough  and  from  tree  to  tree, 
scarcely  ever  descending  to  the  ground ;  its  long  arms  serve  to 
encircle  the  largest  branches,  and  its  two  or  three  long  and 
pointed  claws  aid  its  progress,  and  enable  it  to  sleep  and  eat  with 
its  body  suspended  by  the  fore  paws — a  position  which  would  be 
intolerable  to  any  other  animal ;  it  does  not  move,  it  is  true,  with 


464 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


great  rapidity  even  on  trees  ;  but  it  is,  nevertheless,  far  from  ex- 
hibiting the  sluggishness  which  its  name  implies ;  its  flat  and 
coarse  hair,  in  appearance  and  color  resembling  dried  grass,  or 
moss,  screens  it  from  the  sight  of  carnivorous  animals,  or  of  the 
Brazilian  armed  with  arrows.  Among  the  sloths,  two  principal 
species  are  distinguished.  The  m,  or  three-toed  sloth,  which 
owes  its  name  to  its  cry,  is  of  the  size  of  a  cat,  and  its  arms  are 
double  the  length  of  its  legs  ;  the  unau^  or  two-toed  sloth,  is  only 
half  the  size  of  the  former  ;  its  arms  are  shorter,  its  muzzle  more 
elongated,  and  it  is  generally  less  disproportioned. 

The  monkeys  present  very  numerous  varieties ;  their  flesh  is 
considered  excellent  by  the  Indians.  When  they  perceive  one 
of  these  animals  on  one  of  the  gigantic  forest  trees,  they  lie  in 
wait  for  it,  and  climbing  a  neighboring  tree,  endeavor  to  pierce  it 
with  one  of  those  arrows  which  rarely  miss  their  aim. 

Among  the  innumerable  birds  of  Brazil,  especial  mention 
should  be  made  of  the  humming  birds,  diffused  every  where,  and 
the  coUbris,  which  are  also  found  in  Guiana,  but  which  cannot, 
like  the  preceding,  be  transported  from  the  torrid  zone  to  the 


CoUbris. 


THE   CONTINENT   OF  AMERICA.  465 

countries  of  the  north  ;  they  feed  upon  small  insects,  which  they 
seek  with  their  tapering  beaks  at  the  bottom  of  the  honeyed 
corollas  of  the  flowers  ;  but  many  persons  labor  under  the  delu- 
sion that  they  subsist  upon  the  juice  of  these  flowers.  There  are 
likewise  parrots  of  all  species ;  among  others  aras,  of  magnifi- 
cent and  dazzling  colors,  and  toucans,  which  greatly  attract  the 
notice  of  strangers,  not  only  by  the  beauty  of  their  plumage, 
from  which  the  savages  obtain  the  richest  portion  of  their  orna- 
ments, but  also  from  the  singular  conformation  of  their  enormous 


Toucan. 

beak,  almost  as  large  as  their  body,  (although  very  light,)  and 
containing  a  tongue  which  bears  more  resemblance  to  a  quill  than 
to  any  thing  else  ;  they  feed  upon  the  flesh  of  other  birds,  and  also 
upon  fruits.  No  less  singular  birds  are  the  kamiches,  of  the  size 
of  turkeys,  and  having  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead  a  horn,  two 
or  three  inches  high,  and  in  front  of  their  wings  two  long  spurs, 
triangular,  horned,  and  very  strong,  with  which  they  strike  birds 
of  prey' with  redoubled  blows,  which  the  latter  can  only  escape 
by  cowardly  flight;  in  certain  places  they  are  reared  among 
poultry,  for  the  sake  of  the  protection  which  they  afford.  The 
forests  contain  hoccos,  birds  which  also  resemble  turkeys,  live  in 
numerous  companies,  perch  on  the  highest  trees,  and  subsist  on 
fruits  and  buds ;  their  white  flesh,  of  exquisite  flavor,  is  highly 
esteemed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  where  they  exist, 
and  seems  to  designate  them  as  one  of  the  species  whose  accli- 
mation should  be  attempted   in  other  countries.     The  birds  of 


466  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

prey  are  principally  vultures,  which  ahound  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  cities  and  on  the  shores,  which  they  cleanse  from  many 
impurities;  the  most  remarkable  are  those  which  have  been 
dignified  as  the  kings  of  the  vultures. 

Reptiles,  although  very  abundant,  are  not,  however,  as  numer- 
ous or  as  formidable  as  is  generally  supposed.  The  serpents, 
even  rattlesnakes,  rarely  attack  man.  The  hoas  there  acquire 
enormous  proportions,  as  many  as  20,  25,  and  even  40  feet ;  they 
are  particularly  dangerous  when,  suspended  from  a  tree  by  the 
tail,  they  await  the  appearance  of  prey  in  order  to  spring  upon 
it,  break  its  bones  in  their  folds,  and  swallow  it  slowly  by  a  kind 
of  suction.  The  ugliest  of  the  reptiles  of  Brazil  is  the  horned 
toad,  naturally  as  large  as  the  crown  of  a  hat,  and  which  can 
inflate  itself  to  a  much  greater  size.  If  irritated,  it  distends  an 
enormous  mouth,  giving  utterance  to  its  cry,  and  seems  to  threaten 
its  enemies  by  erecting  the  species  of  fleshy  horns  which  project 
above  each  eyelid ;  it  is,  however,  harmless.  When  the  heavy 
and  sonorous  voice  of  the  bellowing  frog  startles  the  ear,  one  can 
scarcely  believe  that  he  is  not  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  far  larger 
animal.  Innumerable  multitudes  of  lizards  may  every  where  be 
seen,  even  in  the  houses ;  and  the  large  species  furnish  an  excel- 
lent game,  which  is  served  on  the  best  tables :  the  flesh  may  be 
compared  to  that  of  a  young  chicken.  As  respects  insects,  no 
country  in  the  world  offers  such  riches  to  entomologists.  -The 
butterflies,  among  others,  are  very  remarkable ;  as,  for  instance, 
the  agrippina  moth,  a  gray  butterfly,  which  is  nine  inches  and  a 
half  in  width ;  the  nestor,  whose  blue  wings  glitter  resplendently 
in  the  rays  of  the  sun ;  and  the  leilus,  whose  black  wings  are 
threaded  with  green  fringes.  During  a  clear  tropical  night,  a 
more  astonishing  spectacle  can  scarcely  be  imagined  than  that  of 
thefreflies,  whose  rapid  gleams  of  phosphorescent  light  cross  each 
other  in  every  direction.  Like  living  candles,  some  of  these 
coleoptera  diffuse  sufficient  light  to  enable  one  to  read  in  the 
middle  of  the  night.  But  the  noxious  or  venomous  insects  are 
the  principal  scourge  of  these  charming  countries.  They  are  so 
numerous  in  certain  forests  on  the  coast,  that  it  is  affirmed  that 
their  buzzing  is  often  heard  on  board  ships  which  are  anchored 
at  some  distance.     Foremost  should  be  mentioned  the  mosquitos, 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  467 

much  larger  and  more  terrible  than  gnats ;  wJiite  antSy  which  cause 
much  havoc  in  certain  districts,  scorpions,  milhpeds,  and  certain 
spiders,  whose  bite  must  be  avoided ;  and  especially  a  species  of 
pucerons,  so  small  that  they  can  scarcely  be  perceived  with  the 
naked  eye,  and  whose  bill  is  so  pointed  that  they  pierce  shoes  and 
garments,  and  penetrate  even  into  the  flesh.  There  they  imme- 
diately become  enveloped  in  a  white,  spherical  bladder,  in  which 
their  eggs  are  enclosed.  If  this  bladder  is  left  several  days  under 
the  skin,  it  acquires  the  size  of  a  pea,  a  violent  inflammation 
ensues,  which  may  result  in  an  ulcer  of  a  very  malignant  nature, 
and  finally  in  gangrene,  in  consequence  of  which  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  amputate  the  toes,  the  part  principally  exposed  to  the 
attacks  of  these  insects.  In  order  to  obtain  relief,  one  usually 
has  recourse  to  young  negroes,  whose  excellent  eyesight  easily 
enables  them  to  perceive  the  red  point  on  the  skin  through  which 
the  cliique  has  introduced  itself,  and  who,  enlarging  the  aperture 
by  the  aid  of  a  needle,  endeavor  to  remove  the  bladder  whole ; 
failing  in  this,  the  young  insects  become  dispersed  in  the  wound, 
and  create  new  torments. 

The  population  is  composed  of  four  principal  elements :  white 
Creoles,  almost  all  of  Portuguese  origin ;  negroes,  some  of  whom 
are  free,  and  others  slaves,  but  still  very  numerous ;  mulattoes, 
descending  from  blacks  and  whites,  and  Indians.  The  Creoles  are 
whites,  bom  in  America ;  they  are  generally  enervated  by  the 
climate,  and  averse  to  labor,  which  they  abandon  to  their  numer- 
ous slaves. 

AVe  have  already  spoken  of  the  evil  example  too  often  afforded 
by  the  Brazilian  clergy,  whose  moral  influence  is  almost  in- 
effectual for  good.  Primary  schools  are  so  rare  that  they  may  be 
said  to  have  no  existence ;  the  higher  schools  are  little  frequented, 
and  instruction  in  them  is  very  poor.  In  certain  provinces 
assassinations  are  committed  in  broad  daylight,  and  the  murderers 
boast  publicly  of  the  number  and  quality  of  the  men  whom  they 
have  poniarded.  They  bribe  or  intimidate  their  judges,  and  if 
they  belong  to  a  powerful  family,  no  witness  would  dare  to  testify 
the  truth  against  them  before  any  tribunal  whatever.  In  a  word, 
this  population  languishes  in  moral  and  physical  misery,  upon  a 
fertile  soil,  and  amid  the  wonders  of  a  luxuriant  vegetation  un- 
known in  other  climes. 


%. 


468  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

The  negro  race  has  not  increased  in  number  since  Brazil  con- 
sented to  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  which  is,  however, 
always  prosecuted,  to  some  degree,  in  a  clandestine  manner. 
There  are,  however,  several  millions  of  negroes,  some  few  of 
whom  only  have  succeeded,  by  assiduous  labor  in  their  holidays, 
in  procuring  the  money  necessary  to  emancipate  themselves. 
Many  fugitive  slaves  live  in  the  depths  of  the  forests  in  the  most 
profound  misery ;  they  are  called  runaways.  The  natives,  who 
cherish  an  implacable  hatred  against  them,  massacre  them  un- 
mercifully ;  and  they  are,  on  the  other  hand,  incessantly  menaced 
by  soldiers. 

The  mulattoes  are  intelligent  and  active ;  and  utterly  abhorring 
the  Creoles,  they  aspire  to  possess  themselves  of  the  government, 
and  will  eventually  attain  their  object  in  the  northern  provinces. 

The  Indians  are  distinguished  as  Mansos,  or  tamed  Indians,  and 
T'apuyas,  or  savages.  The  former  have  received  Catholicism, 
are  engaged  in  agriculture,  and  reside  on  the  coasts  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  towns  and  small  villages.  The  latter  lead  a  life  of 
complete  independence,  and  although  generally  at  peace  with  the 
whites,  they  often  perpetrate  robberies  and  murders.  Their 
weapons  are  the  bow  and  arrow  and  the  cutlass ;  they  wage 
among  themselves  continual  wars,  and  several  of  their  tribes 
have  preserved  the  custom  of  eating  their  prisoners.  These 
savages  are  of  middling  stature ;  they  have  a  thick-set,  but  well- 
formed  body,  smaller  hands  and  feet  than  the  Europeans,  long 
hair,  thin  beard,  a  short  and  round  face,  and  a  yellowish  or 
copper  complexion.  Their  appetite  is  brutal,  and  their  only  care 
is  to  provide  themselves  with  food ;  but,  if  necessary,  they  can 
sustain  hunger  a  long  time.  The  tribes  on  the  coast  best  known 
to  the  whites  are  the  Pitris,  the  Camaques,  and  the  Botocudoes, 
who  surpass  all  the  others  in  strength  and  ferocity.  Their 
favorite  ornament  consists  of  bits  of  wood,  which  they  insert  in 
apertures  made  in  the  upper  lip  and  in  the  soft  part  of  the  ear, 
which  apertures  are  enlarged  by  introducing  into  them,  succes- 
sively, blocks  of  greater  and  greater  size,  until  they  have  attained 
the  dimensions  required  by  fashion.  The  attempts  made  by 
missionaries  to  convert  these  savages  have  almost  always  failed. 

The   Selvas   op   the  Amazon.  —  The  selvas^  or  wooded 


THE   CONTINENT   OP   AMERICA.  469 

plains  of  the  Amazon  River,  extend  from  the  mountains  of  Guiana 
at  the  north  to  the  chain  of  the  Andes  at  the  west,  and  southerly 


Botocttdoes. 

towards  the  plateaus  of  the  Campos,  into  the  heart  of  which  they 
penetrate  through  the  damp  valleys  of  the  great  rivers.  "With 
the  exception  of  a  very  small  number  of  sandy  steppes,  a  vast 
extent  of  surface  presents,  so  to  speak,  only  a  sea  of  verdant 
forests,  where  vegetation  displays  unparalleled  force.  The  trees 
attain  colossal  proportions,  and  the  forests  are  rendered  so  dense 
by  innumerable  climbing  plants  and  parasites  of  all  kinds,  that 
the  sun's  rays  can  scarcely  penetrate  through  their  foliage. 
Thousands  of  vegetables  of  these  regions  are  still  unknown  to  us, 
since  the  whites  have  scarcely  cleared  a  passage,  except  along 
the  principal  rivers.  It  is  known,  however,  that  these  forests  are 
peopled  by  vast  numbers  of  the  most  diminutive  monkeys,  besides 
parrots  and  other  birds  arrayed  in  the  most  gaudy  colors,  and 
insects  of  the  greatest  beauty  and  variety.  Almost  all  the  Indian 
tribes  are  still  savage  and  independent,  except  a  small  number, 
who,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  rivers,  have  admitted  a  few  missionary 
stations,  which  are  now,  unfortunately,  very  much  neglected. 

Plain    op    Guiana.  —  This    plain,    situated    between    the 

mountains  of  Guiana  and  the  ocean,  is  composed  of  a  border  of 

very  low  lands,  formed  by  various  alluvial  deposits,  transported 

to  the  sea  by  the  vast  Amazon  River,  and  driven  upon  the  shores 

40 


470  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

of  Guiana  by  tlie  constant  action  of  the  trade  winds  and  marine 
currents,  which  render  the  sea  turbid  and  slimy  for  a  distance  of 
10  or  12  leagues.  These  banks  of  soft  mud,  thus  added  to  the 
shore,  are  elevated  by  degrees;  the  mangroves  soon  plant  in 
them  their  tortuous  roots,  and  thus  the  soil  is  gradually  rendered 
firm.  The  rest  of  the  plain  is  composed  of  what  are  called  the 
high  lands,  generally  clothed  with  forests.  Those  which  cover 
the  low  lands  are  interrupted  by  immense  bare  spaces,  called 
savannas,  some  resting  on  firm  soil,  others  completely  marshy, 
and  others,  —  the  trembling  savannas  —  presenting  a  layer  of 
earth  two  feet  in  thickness,  covered  with  tufts  of  very  verdant 
grass,  reposing  on  a  soft  bed  of  mud  of  five  or  six  feet  in  depth. 

The  climate  of  Guiana  is  perhaps  less  unhealthy  than  it  has 
been  represented ;  yet  it  speedily  enervates  Europeans,  and  ex- 
poses them  to  dangerous  fevers,  especially  in  the  low  lands, 
which  are  by  far  the  most  fertile  and  populous  portion.  This 
climate  is  possessed  at  once  of  extreme  heat  and  dampness. 
The  year  is  divided  into  two  seasons :  the  dry,  from  July  to 
November,  during  which  it  very  rarely  rains,  and  the  season  of 
the  tropical  rains,  which  lasts  from  November  to  July,  except  an 
interruption  during  the  short  summer  of  March,  Eight  times  as 
much  rain  falls  there  as  at  the  Observatory  in  Paris.  The  power 
of  the  sun  is  withering ;  no  one  can  expose  himself  with  impunity 
to  its  rays,  and  a  straw  hat  affords  an  insufficient  protection. 
One  should  place  a  piece  of  wet  linen  in  the  crown  of  his  hat, 
and  especially  abstain  from  quitting  the  shelter  of  his  roof  during 
the  middle  of  the  day. 

Vegetables.  —  Few  countries  yield  more  useful  woods  for  build- 
ing and  cabinet  work ;  but  we  will  not  reiterate  what  has  already 
been  said  of  them  in  connection  w  itli  the  mountains.  When  the 
low  lands  have  once  been  dmined  by  a  very  extensive  system  of 
canals,  they  furnish  the  colonial  commodities,  and  the  choicest 
fruits,  sugar  cane,  coffee,  cotton,  indigo,  pepper,  manioc,  ignames, 
batatas,  the  pomegranate  and  fig  of  Europe,  oranges,  lemons,  and 
pears.  A  shrub  peculiar  to  Guiana  yields  a  seed,  the  use  of 
which  has  become  common  in  the  art  of  dyeing ;  this  is  the 
amotto.  The  arnotto  is  a  tree  of  considerable  height,  and  more 
bushy  than  the  plum.     Its  clusters  of  flowers,  very  similar  to 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  471 

wild  roses,  are  replaced  twice  a  year  by  burs  of  smaller  size  than 
those  of  the  chestnut,  but  equally  prickly.  They  contain  small 
seeds,  covered  with  a  carnation-colored  pellicle;  and  this  is  what 
composes  the  arnotto.  When  the  pods  open  spontaneously,  they 
are  collected,  and  from  them  are  detached  the  seeds,  which  are 
immediately  cast  into  great  troughs  filled  with  water.  When  the 
fermentation  commences,  the  seeds  are  crushed  and  the  liquid 
portion,  which  is  more  or  less  thick  and  reddish,  is  strained 
through  sieves ;  it  is  afterwards  placed  over  the  fire,  the  scum 
removed,  and  this  scum,  after  being  boiled  several  hours,  is  poured 
into  moulds,  and  becomes  the  tinctorial  matter  of  a  beautiful  ver- 
milion red,  which  is  chiefly  employed  in  imparting  very  brilliant, 
but  not  very  enduring  hues  to  silks.  Its  cultivation  is  not  as 
much  encouraged  as  formerly. 

Besides  the  caoutchouc  and  the  sarsaparilla,  of  which  we  have 
already  spoken,  Guiana  also  supplies  the  quassia  or  Surinam 
wood,  a  shrub  whose  root  contains  a  bitter  principle  much  used 
in  medicine  as  a  tonic,  particularly  for  assisting  the  digestive 
functions  of  the  stomach  ;  the  balsam  of  copaiva,  a  resinous  juice, 
which  is  obtained  by  making  deep  incisions  in  the  bark  of  a  large- 
tufted  and  elegant  tree  that  grows  in  almost  all  tropical  America, 
and  which  resin  is  also  an  energetic  stimulant,  much  employed  in 
medicine  ;  the  angostura,  a  tree  whose  bark  has  long  been  very 
much  esteemed  as  an  antidote  to  dysentery  and  intermittent 
fevers  ;  and  the  arrowroot,  (so  called  because  it  was  thought  to 
serve  as  a  remedy  against  the  poisonous  arrows  of  the  Indians,)  a 
plant  whose  long  root,  grated  over  a  vessel  filled  with  water,  de- 
posits at  the  bottom  a  fecula  less  white  than  that  of  the  potato, 
but  light,  strengthening,  and  very  useful  in  cases  of  protracted 
convalescence.  On  the  other  hand,  this  country  furnishes  terrible 
poisons,  of  which  the  savages  make  use  for  poisoning  their  arrows ; 
they  prepare  it  with  the  juice  of  a  climbing  plant,  the  strychnos 
toxifera,  whose  effects  are  quick  and  powerful. 

The  animal  is  no  less  varied  than  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
Birds  of  all  sizes :  the  colibri,  ara,  and  toucan  bedeck  the  forests 
with  their  brilHant  plumage,  whilst  a  bird  of  the  size  of  a  jay,  and 
as  white  as  snow — the  campanero — makes  its  voice  heard  at  more 
than  a  league's  distance,  shrill  and  clear  as  the  silvery  sounds  of 


472  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

a  bell,  whence  it  derived  its  name,  which  signifies  hell  hird. 
Another  bird  of  the  same  country,  which  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  latter,  is  the  agami,  surnamed  trumpeter,  on  account  of  a 


Trumpeter. 

singular  noise  which  seems  to  proceed  from  the  interior  of  its 
body,  like  a  kind  of  ventriloquism.  This  animal,  a  little  larger 
than  a  hen,  and  of  a  mild  and  confiding  nature,  is  easily  tamed, 
recognizes  its  master  and  courts  his  caresses,  and  becomes,  it  is 
said,  the  guide  and  protector  of  all  the  other  birds  of  the  poultry 
yard,  which  it  defends  courageously  even  against  dogs,  so  that  it 
would  seem  very  desirable  that  it  should  be  acclimated  every 
where.    . 

The  quadrupeds  are  almost  precisely  the  same  as  those  that 
are  encountered  in  all  the  warm  countries  of  South  America 
— jaguars,  cougars,  tapirs,  anteaters,  peccaries,  pacas,  agoutis, 
tatons,  and  crab-eating  dogs,  which  live  on  the  sea  shore,  and  by 
means  of  their  paws  draw  the  crabs  from  their  holes  ;  many 
monkeys  of  all  species,  among  others  the  titi,  or  omstiti,  a  charm- 
ing little  animal,  which  does  not  attain  the  size  of  a  squirrel ;  the 
howling  monkeys,  whose  flesh  is  said  to  be  excellent,  and  which 
avail  themselves  of  their  long,  prehensile  tail,  not  only  in  shooting 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA,  473 

from  branch  to  branch  and  from  tree  to  tree  with  surprising  agil- 
ity, but  which  aid  each  other  mutually,  by  extending,  not  the 
hand,  but  the  tail,  to  support  one  another  in  crossing  a  stream ; 
and  the  kinkajou,  an  animal  of  the  size  of  a  cat,  with  woolly  fur, 


Kinkajou. 

of  a  red  color,  gay  and  alert  during  the  night,  and  sleeping  con- 
tinually during  the  day.  It  leaps  with  agility  from  bough  to 
bough,  clinging  to  the  branches  by  means  of  its  tail ;  it  destroys 
many  birds'  nests  and  beehives,  first  breaking  the  honey  comb 
with  one  of  its  paws,  and  then  thrusting  its  long  tongue  into  the 
aperture,  thus  collecting  its  booty  even  at  a  foot's  depth  in  the 
hive. 

Dangerous  reptiles,  boas,  rattlesnakes,  and  others  infest  the 
forests  ;  formidable  hosts  of  insignificant  insects  ;  the  mosquitos, 
which  inflict  terrible  tortures  upon  the  Europeans  ;  pucerons, 
which  penetrate  deeply  into  the  flesh,  and  cancrelots,  which  devour 
provisions  and  damage  all  the  stores. 

The  population  is  composed  of  whites,  negroes,  and  Indians. 
The  whites  are  English,  Dutch,  and  French,  who  have  divided 
among  themselves  the  low  plain,  and  cultivate  principally  the  colo- 
nial commodities.  The  negroes,  formerly  all  slaves,  labor  very 
negligently  since  they  have  obtained  their  liberty,  so  that  the  pro- 
40* 


474  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

prietors  of  certain  plantations  have  been  obliged  to  replace  them 
by  free  laborers  introduced  from  India  at  great  expense.  In  Dutch 
Guiana,  slavery  always  exists.  The  Indians  are  still  more  indo- 
lent, more  passionately  fond  of  music,  dancing,  and  liquor,  and  the 
continual  wars  which  are  carried  on  among  them  are  daily  dimin- 
ishing their  number. 

In  all  these  colonies  missionary  labors  have  been  undertaken 
for  converting  to  Christianity  the  negroes  and  Indians,  who  are 
yet  plunged  in  superstition,  and  in  the  most  profound  moral  dark- 
ness. They  have  obtained,  up  to  the  present  time,  but  little  suc- 
cess, except  in  certain  portions  of  English  Guiana,  and  especially 
in  Dutch  Guiana,  where,  in  spite  of  the  difficulties  which  slavery 
presents,  the  missionaries  of  the  Society  of  the  Moravian  Brethren, 
with  their  usual  devotedness,  have  established  schools  and  stations 
even  among  the  runaway  blacks,  who  have  taken  refuge  in  the 
forests  of  the  interior.  One  alone  of  their  churches,  that  of  Par- 
imaribo,  computes  no  less  than  5000  communicants,  and  most  of 
the  plantations  are  now  open  to  them,  since  the  proprietors  have 
perceived  the  salutary  and  pacific  influence  which  their  preaching 
exercises  over  the  blacks. 

The  Llanos  of  the  Orinoco.  —  The  llanos  of  the  Ori- 
noco, situated  between  the  Andes  and  the  mountains  of  Guiana, 
are  immense  and  monotonous  plains,  where  often,  for  a  space  of 
20  leagues  in  circumference,  not  a  tree  nor  a  hill  meets  the  view, 
and  where  the  only  eminences  which  are  to  be  seen  are  rocky  plat- 
forms, a  few  feet  in  height,  on  which  the  cattle  find  a  refuge  at  the 
period  of  the  inundations.  Twice  every  year  the  aspect  of  these 
regions  undergoes  a  total  change.  After  the  rainy  season,  during 
which  the  greater  part  of  the  plain  is  submerged,  the  ground  is 
covered  with  abundant  grass,  rising  from  7  to  10  feet  in  height, 
and  which,  when  agitated  by  the  breeze,  undulates  hke  the  waves 
of  the  ocean.  But  as  soon  as  the  heat  of  summer  commences,  the 
grass  turns  yellow  and  withers,  the  springs  dry  up,  and  no  ver- 
dure is  to  be  seen,  except  on  the  borders  of  rivers,  whither  the 
cattle  resort  in  search  of  freshness  and  shade.  The  heat  then 
becomes  insufferable,  and  wearies  the  eyes  of  the  traveller,  who  is 
often  a  victim  to  the  illusions  of  the  mirage.  From  this  calcined 
soil  rise  clouds  of  dust,  like  the  simoom  of  the  deserts  of  Africa, 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  475 

■whose  poisonous  breath  sometimes  causes  animals  to  perish  by- 
thousands.  Autumn  arrives,  and  it  is  necessary  to  burn  the  grass 
in  order  to  obtain  finer  herbage  in  the  spring ;  it  is  set  on  fire  in 
many  places  at  once,  and  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  of  the  mag- 
nificent spectacle  exhibited  by  this  ocean  of  flame,  which  destroys 
every  thing  that  it  encounters,  and  in  consequence  of  which  the 
vultures  reap  abundant  harvests  in  the  multitudes  of  serpents, 
large  frogs,  and  other  small  animals,  surprised  and  overtaken  by 
the  fire. 

The  climate  presents  the  two  contrary  extremes  of  excessive 
humidity  during  the  rainy  season,  and  scorching  heat  during  that 
of  the  drought. 

Animals.  —  In  these  llanos  the  principal  occupation  consists  in 
the  rearing  of  cattle.  Every  great  proprietor  possesses  15,  20, 
50,  and  even  100  leagues  of  savannas,  and  from  20,000  to  50,000 
head  of  horned  cattle  and  horses ;  these  droves  are  usually  tended 
by  a  company  of  herdsmen  on  horseback,  placed  under  an  over- 
seer, on  whom  devolves  the  management  of  the  hafoSy  or  farms,  gen- 
erally composed  of  three  or  four  houses,  constructed  of  earth  mixed 
with  dried  grass,  and  covered  with  palm  leaves.  These  oxen 
and  horses  are  descended  from  those  which  the  Spaniards  intro- 
duced into  these  countries  after  the  conquest:  there  are  also 
herds  of  asses,  swine,  and  wild  dogs  ;  the  last  have  indeed  be- 
come so  numerous  in  certain  places,  that  they  inspire  solitary 
travellers  with  fear.  The  mode  of  milking  cows  in  these  hatos  is 
very  singular.  As  they  are  perfectly  wild,  the  farmers  do  not 
attempt  to  milk  them  until  after  the  birth  of  a  3'oung  calf,  which 
they  then  bring  to  the  farm  followed  by  the  mother,  and  a  rope 
being  passed  around  the  legs  of  the  latter  while  the  little  animal 
takes  its  nourishment,  she  can  be  milked  in  perfect  safety ;  at 
other  times,  however,  it  is  only  by  flinging  a  lasso  round  their 
neck  and  hoisting  them  in  the  air,  until  the  hind  feet  scarcely 
touch  the  ground,  that  they  can  be  kept  quiet.  When  a  horse  is 
in  request,  the  liavero  captures  him  with  the  lasso  as  in  the  pam- 
pas, subdues  him  by  striking  him  on  the  head  so  hard  as  to  stun 
him,  after  which  he  bandages  his  eyes,  places  a  bit  in  his  mouth, 
a  saddle  on  his  back,  and  mounting  him,  lets  him  loose  in  the 
plain,  and  endeavors  to  tame  him  by  fatigue,  without  suffering 


476  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

himself  to  be  thrown.  The  sale  of  horses  and  oxen,  tallow  and 
hides,  forms  the  principal  revenue  of  the  very  thinly  scattered 
populations  which  inhabit  the  borders  of  the  Orinoco  and  its 
tributaries. 

Wild  beasts  of  all  kinds  abound  in  these  vast  plains,  and  in  the 
neighboring  forests.  There  may  be  encountered  troops  of  stags 
and  deer,  tribes  of  monkeys,  tapirs,  jaguars,  &c. 

The  population  is  composed  of  whites  of  Spanish  origin,  and 
of  mulattoes  who  are  principally  occupied  in  the  rearing  of  cattle, 
and  exhibit  great  coarseness  of  manners.  There  exist  also  in 
these  plains,  and  in  the  forests  of  the  Upper  Orinoco,  various  In- 
dian tribes,  very  different  in  language  and  civilization.  Some, 
brought  under  the  influence  of  devoted  Catholic  missionaries,  have 
abandoned  savage  life,  and  have  been  initiated  by  them  in  the 
elements  of  Christianity  and  civilized  customs.  Unfortunately,  in 
the  midst  of  the  continual  political  revolutions  which  agitate  these 
countries,  labors  of  this  nature  obtain  no  encouragement.  Others 
of  these  Indians,  still  nomadics,  and  complete  strangers  to  agri- 
culture, subsist  on  fern  roots,  lizards,  ants,  gum,  and  earth,  and 
seem  to  be  the  offscouring  of  the  human  species ;  such,  for  exam- 
ple, as  the  Otomaques,  The  earth  which  they  eat  is  a  rich  and 
unctuous  soil,  a  veritable  potter's  clay.  They  carefully  collect  it 
on  the  borders  of  the  Orinoco,  mould  it  in  balls  of  from  four  to  six 
inches  in  diameter,  and  cook  it  before  a  slow  fire  until  the  outer 
surface  acquires  a  reddish  hue.  Wlien  they  wish  to  eat  this  ball, 
they  moisten  it  anew.  The  natives  are  so  fond  of  it  that  they 
consume  a  small  portion  every  day,  even  in  the  season  when  fish 
and  other  food  are  abundant.  Another  tribe,  that  of  the  Garihs, 
the  remnant  of  a  vast  nation,  is  still  addicted  to  cannibalism,  not- 
withstanding the  extraordinary  softness  of  its  language ;  and 
1  here  are  the  Indians  who  up  to  the  present  time  have  prevented 
explorers  from  penetrating  to  the  sources  of  the  Orinoco. 

Plain  op  Magdalena.  —  The  plain  of  Magdalena,  situated 
between  the  northern  branches  of  the  Andes  and  the  sea,  is  a 
country  of  slight  extent,  and  whose  productions  are  not  generally 
remarkable.  The  climate  is  excessively  hot,  the  air  quite  un- 
healthy, and  even  in  certain  places  actually  pestilential ;  the 
country  is  very  much  exposed  to  shocks  of  earthquakes.     At  the 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  477 

period  of  the  most  intense  heat,  the  wealthy  families  ot  Cartha- 
gena  and  other  cities  of  the  coast  seek  a  somewhat  fresher  at- 
mosphere at  the  village  of  Turbaco,  on  a  small  plateau,  from  the 
surface  of  which  rise  20  little  volcanoes,  from  20  to  25  feet  in 
height,  having  at  the  summit  a  circular  basin  filled  with  water, 
constantly  agitated  by  exhalations  of  hydrogen  gas,  which  are  re- 
peated about  five  times  every  two  minutes,  and  are  usually  pre- 
ceded by  a  hollow  rumbling,  which  is  followed  by  an  eruption  of 
liquid  mud  and  gas. 

The  'productions  are  very  nearly  the  same  as  those  which  we 
have  previously  assigned  to  the  plateau  of  New  Granada — cotton, 
indigo,  tobacco,  wheat,  &c.  We  shall  only  direct  the  attention 
of  our  readers  to  two  plants,  which  are  more  abundant  in  this 
country  than  elsewhere — the  milk  tree  and  the  balsam  of  Tolu. 
The  milk  tree^  or  cow  tree,  (palo  di  vaca  galactodendron,)  is  one 
of  the  most  curious  productions  of  tropical  nature.  Similar  to 
the  apple  tree  in  form,  with  broad  leaves,  it  yields  a  whitish  and 
glutinous  beverage,  of  an  agreeable  taste  and  of  a  harmless  char- 
acter. This  mild  and  nourishing  liquid  is  more  abundant  at  sun- 
rise than  at  any  other  time  of  day.  The  negroes  and  Indians 
may  then  be  seen  flocking  from  all  quarters  with  large  vessels 
destined  to  receive  the  milk,  which  soon  turns  yellow  and  thickens 
on  the  surface.  Some  even  drink  it  under  the  tree ;  others  carry 
it  to  their  children.  M.  de  Humboldt  compares  this  marvellous 
vegetable  to  a  shepherd  distributing  to  his  family  the  milk  of  his 
flocks;  and  in  truth  we  cannot  sufficiently  admire  this  precious 
gift  of  divine  bounty.  The  balsam  of  Tolu,  so  called  from  the 
name  of  the  city  of  Tolu,  is  a  tree  of  elegant  and  graceful  appear- 
ance, from  whose  trunk  is  obtained,  by  incision,  a  balsamic  sub- 
stance, of  a  tawny  yellow  color,  a  very  sweet  odor,  and  a  tart, 
but  agreeable  taste.  The  balsam  of  Tolu,  as  likewise  that  of 
Peru,  which  proceeds  from  trees  of  the  same  genus,  (myroxilum,) 
and  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the  former,  is  much  employed 
in  perfumery,  and  also  in  medicine  .as  a  cure  for  coughs,  or  as  a 
stimulant. 

The  Valley  of  the  Mississippi.  —  The  valle?/  of  the 
3Iississippi  consists  of  a  vast  plain  of  1,200,000  square  miles, 
which  occupies  all  the  central  part  of  North  America,  and  ex- 


478  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

tends  from  the  Rocky  to  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  and  from 
the  borders  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  as  far  as  the  Minnesota  plateau, 
in  45  degrees  north  latitude,  which  stretches  from  east  to  west, 
near  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi.  This  plain,  whose  general 
character  is  that  of  perfect  uniformity,  rises  by  a  gentle  and  reg- 
ular slope  on  the  western  and  northern  sides  ;  but  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Alleghanies,  the  slope  is  interrupted  by  hills  and 
valleys,  which  constitute  the  most  fertile  territory  of  the  United 
States.  A  country  of  such  considerable  extent  must  necessarily 
vary  widely  in  different  portions,  in  respect  to  soil,  climate,  and 
productions.  The  four  principal  divisions  by  which  it  is  distin- 
guished may  be  characterized  in  the  following  manner :  — 

The  maritime  plairi,  comprising  Texas  at  the  west,  and  Louis- 
iana  at  the  east,  around  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi ;  very  hot 
countries,  and  quite  unhealthy ;  exposed  at  least  to  the  ravages 
of  fevers,  especially  to  those  of  the  yellow  fever,  but  of  a  very 
rich  vegetation,  producing  an  abundance  of  cotton,  sugar  cane, 
and  other  commodities  or  fruits  of  the  hot  climes. 

At  the  foot  and  eastward  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  stretches  a 
sandy  desert,  a  species  of  steppes,  scorched  in  summer  and  frozen 
in  winter,  destitute  of  trees  and  water,  except  on  the  borders  of 
rivers,  and  covered  only  during  a  portion  of  the  year  with  coarse, 
short,  and  thick  grass,  and  in  some  places  with  a  layer  of  salt 
several  inches  in  depth,  like  that  which  is  remarked  in  the  steppes 
of  Upper  Asia.  These  are  the  principal  hunting  grounds  of  the 
natives ;  but  neither  the  cabin  of  the  white  man  nor  the  wigwam 
of  the  Indian  is  to  be  seen.  This  is  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
Great  American  Desert. 

The  savannas,  so  called,  or  prairies,  which  extend  from  the 
region  of  the  steppes  as  far  as  that  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  to 
the  Mississippi,  are  immense  and  monotonous  plains,  although  a 
little  undulated,  clothed  with  abundant  and  flowering  grass,  and 
occasionally,  although  rarely,  intersected  by  forests  or  thickets  of 
wood,  so  that  one  may  traverse  them  for  several  days  without 
encountering  a  single  shrub.  The  remote  portions  of  the  savan- 
nas, which  have  not  been  invaded  by  cultivation,  still  afford  very 
good  hunting  territories  ;  the  game,  however,  is  rapidly  diminish- 
ing from  day  to  day. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  479 

The  hasin  of  the  Ohio  and  Tennessee,  on  the  western  slope  of 
the  Appalachians,  composed  of  deep,  warm,  and  fertile  valleys, 
forming  a  vast  and  magnificent  forest,  already  sensibly  thinned 
by  cultivation,  and  presenting  the  finest  trees  of  the  United 
States.  The  climate  of  these  two  latter  portions  is  generally 
temperate  ;  however,  the  variations  of  temperature  are  sudden  and 
excessive,  and  the  cold  is  very  keen  in  winter,  because  no  moun- 
tain shelters  the  plains  of  the  Mississippi  from  the  icy  winds  of 
the  poles. 

Minerals  are  not  abundant ;  they  consist  principally  of  coal  in 
the  valley  of  the  Ohio,  and  of  lead  in  the  savannas  of  the  Illinois 
and  Missouri,  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  animals  are  the  most  remarkable  and  the  richest  portion 
of  the  productions  of  these  plains.  The  buffaloes,  or  bisons,  de- 
serve the  first  mention  among  those  animals  which  are  the  object 
of  the  assiduous  chase  of  the  natives  and  whites.  The  American 
buffalo  differs  essentially  from  the  bison  of  Europe  or  Asia. 
Over  its  head  and  its  shoulders,  rounded  by  an  enormous  hump, 
floats  a  terrible  black  mane,  which  covei's  its  whole  face,  and 
sometimes  even  reaches  to  the  ground,  giving  it  a  fearful  aspect. 
Its  horns  are  short,  but  formidable,  and  the  expression  of  its  round 
eyes  is  extremely  savage.  The  female  is  a  little  smaller  than 
the  male ;  the  latter  weighs  as  much  as  2000  pounds  ;  it  is  the 
largest  ruminant  of  the  new  world.  The  buffaloes  often  traverse 
these  vast  plains  in  very  numerous  troops,  and  their  almost  peri- 
odical return  is  awaited  with  impatience  by  the  Indians,  who, 
besides  the  pleasure  which  they  derive  from  pursuing  this  animal, 
make  such  great  account  of  its  flesh,  that  they  disdain  all  other 
game.  This  hunt  is  performed  on  horses,  trained  expressly  for 
the  purpose,  which  sagaciously  advance  within  three  or  four  paces 
of  the  buffalo,  always  pressing  it  on  the  left  side,  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  hunter  can  unerringly  pierce  it  to  the  heart  with  his 
arrow.  As  soon  as  the  arrival  of  a  drove  is  announced,  the  Indians 
usually  divide  into  two  bands,  which  take  opposite  directions,  but 
■gradually  approach  so  as  to  form  a  vast  circle,  encompassing  the 
herd.  Immediately  upon  their  becoming  conscious  of  the  approach 
of  the  hunters,  they  take  to  flight  in  great  disorder,  and  endeavor 
to  break  the  line  of  dogs,  by  uttering  terrible  bellowings,  and  attack- 


480 


THE   GEOGRAPHY   OF  NATURE. 


ing  the  horses  with  their  horns ;  nevertheless,  the  greater  part  of 
them  usually  perish.  Another  less  perilous  mode  of  hunt  con- 
sists in  attacking  the  animal  by  surprise,  the  hunters  skilfully 


Buffalo  Hunt. 

enveloping  themselves  in  a  wolf  skin,  and  creeping  on  their  hands 
and  knees  directly  in  front  of  the  buffaloes,  which,  not  alarmed 
by  these  false  wolves,  only  put  themselves  in  a  position  to  main- 
tain a  defence  with  their  horns.  The  Indians,  thus  disguised, 
are  armed  with  their  bows  and  good  arrows,  and  when  they  have 
arrived  within  a  certain  distance,  there  is  no  time  left  for  the 
buffalo  to  make  its  escape. 

It  is  also  by  a  ruse  that  the  Indians  generally  suceed  in  obtain- 
ing possession  of  the  antelopes,  which  are  little  appreciated  by 
them  except  when  their  skin  is  in  requisition  for  the  manufacture 
of  garments,  or  when  there  is  a  deficiency  of  buffaloes.  The 
antelope  is,  as  we  are  already  aware,  a  graceful  and  very  timid 
animal,  which  always  keeps  aloof  from  man,  and  avails  itself  of 
the  fleetness  of  its  limbs  in  eluding  his  approach.  Unfortunately 
for  it,  it  is  very  curious.     When  the  Indians  wish  to  kill  one  of 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA  481 

them,  they  lie  flat  on  their  faces  in  the  grass,  and  attach  to  a  stick 
planted  in  the  ground  a  piece  of  red  or  any  other  colored  cloth. 
The  antelopes  are  then  sure  to  be  seen,  one  after  another,  ap- 
proaching the  object  which  has  attracted  them.  The  hunter  in 
ambuscade  improves  this  moment  to  shoot  his  arrow  or  fire  his 
musket  at  the  poor  animal,  and  with  his  accustomed  skill  he  infal- 
libly stretches  him  on  the  ground.  In  these  regions  are  found 
two  species  of  antelopes  ;  the  one  almost  the  size  of  the  common 
stag,  and  the  other  no  larger  than  the  goat. 

The  savannas  and  steppes  also  nourish  numbers  of  wild  horses, 
which  the  Indian  or  white  hunters  succeed  in  seizing  and  tam- 
ing, by  the  aid  of  a  species  of  lasso  very  similar  to  that  which  is 
used  in  South  America.  Every  native  warrior  has  at  least  one 
horse,  which  he  manages  with  extraordinary  dexterity.  The  ab- 
duction of  horses  from  the  white  establishments  or  hostile  tribes 
is  indeed  the  most  common  cause  of  the  constantly  recurring  hos- 
tilities which  decimate  the  savage  populations. 

Many  other  animals  (which  are  already  familiar  to  us)  are 
met  with  and  hunted  in  these  plains :  such  are  stags  of  great 
size;  elks,  whose  flesh  is  highly  prized ;  deer,  hares,  wild  dogs, 
whose  flesh  is  eaten,  (the  Indians  even  eat  that  of  their  do- 
mestic dogs ;)  many  species  of  bears,  all  very  much  dreaded, 
especially  that  which  is  called  the  grisly  bear ;  different  varie- 
ties of  wolves,  some  white,  others  red,  and  all  great  destroyers 
of  game ;  gluttons,  jaguars,  carcajous  or  lynxes,  opossums,  pec- 
caries, &c. 

One  of  the  most  singular  animals  which  these  countries  pro- 
duce is  that  which  is  called  the  prairie  dog,  a  species  of  marmot, 
whose  only  analogy  to  the  dog  consists  in  a  kind  of  barking. 
This  little  quadruped,  of  the  size  of  the  rabbit,  is  a  very  lively, 
frolicsome  creature,  always  in  motion,  and  eminently  sociable, 
so  much  so  that  thousands  of  them  often  assemble  on  the  same 
spot,  and  by  digging  their  deep  burrows  in  many  regular,  paral- 
lel lines,  raise  mounds  of  earth  which  give  their  habitations  the 
appearance  of  tents,  and  of  a  miniature  encampment.  On  ap- 
proaching one  of  these  villages,  some  of  these  animals  may  be 
seen  wandering  in  the  streets,  others  rambling  in  companies  from 
one  dwelling  to  another,  some  browsing  on  the  fresh  grass,  and 
41 


482  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

others  collected  in  places  as  if  holding  council  together.  But  as 
soon  as  one  of  them  perceives  a  man,  he  gives  the  signal  of  dan- 
ger by  shrill  cries,  and  the  whole  colony  immediately  precipitate 
themselves  into  their  subterranean  dwellings,  which  are  dug  at 
such  a  depth  that  no  one  can  penetrate  into  them.  These  vil- 
lages, which  often  cover  many  acres  in  extent,  are  not  inhabited 
exclusively  by  the  prairie  dogs ;  they  serve  also  as  a  refuge  for 
a  particular  species  of  owl,  and  for  rattlesnakes ;  but  we  are  igno- 
rant whether  it  is  by  force  or  otherwise  that  these  strange  guests 
establish  themselves  in  these  habitations. 

Rattlesnakes  are  likewise  frequently  met  with  in  the  wooded 
places ;  wild  turkeys  are  also  seen  in  very  numerous  troops  in 
the  forests,  and  bees,  which  are  advancing  farther  and  farther  into 
the  remote  regions  of  the  far  west,  where  they  are  considered  by 
the  Indians  to  herald  the  approach  of  the  whites ;  their  fragrant 
honeycombs  frequently  afford  a  precious  resource  to  the  prairie 
hunters,  who,  after  having  felled  the  hollow  tree  in  which  the  bees 
have  deposited  their  hive,  suffocate  the  poor  insects  by  burning 
grass  before  the  opening,  and  afterwards  remove  the  honey  at 
their  convenience. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Ohio,  and  in  all  the  cultivated  portions  of 
the  plain  of  the  Mississippi,  are  found,  in  very  great  abundance, 
all  the  domestic  animals  which  the -Europeans  have  introduced 
into  the  new  world  —  horses,  horned  cattle,  and  swine. 

Population,  —  The  white  population,  which  has  long  since 
driven  the  natives  beyond  the  Mississippi,  is  gradually  invading 
the  entire  territory  of  the  prairies  ;  and  its  adventurous  colonists, 
the  rude  and  intrepid  squatters,  continually  extending  their  clear- 
ings, and  destroying  the  large  game,  will,  ere  long,  have  com- 
pelled the  remnant  of  the  Indian  nations  to  seek,  beyond  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  ten-itories  more  favorable  for  their  hunts. 
With  their  characteristic  recklessness  the  poor  natives  lull  their 
anxiety  on  the  subject  of  the  rapid  disappearance  of  the  buffa- 
loes, by  the  reflection  that  the  small  pox  and  the  ravages  of 
brandy  (two  absolute  scourges  among  these  tribes)  will  have 
exterminated  them  before  famine  can  supervene.  Their  whole 
consolation  consists  in  the  anticipation  of  a  future  existence,  where 
they  can  hunt  amid  buffaloes  without  number,  and  where  the 


THE  CONTINENT   OP   AMERICA. 


483 


pale  faces  (the  whites)  will  not  dare  to  brave  the  anger  of  the 
Great  Spirit. 

The  Indians  of  the  savannas  are  distinguished  for  their  tall 
and  slender  stature,  their  muscular  limbs,  prominent  cheek  bones, 
aquiline  nose,  and  copper-colored  complexion.  Peaceable  and 
humane  in  time  of  peace,  they  are  cruel  in  war,  fond  of  torturing 
their  enemies,  and  of  confronting  danger.  Their  presence  of 
mind  never  forsakes  them,  for  they  make  it  a  point  never  to  be 
astonished  at  any  thing,  and  always  maintain  perfect  self-control. 
The  life  of  an  Indian,  in  his  own  village,  is  a  life  of  indolence 
and  pleasure :  his  wife  is  burdened  with  all  the  labors,  the  hus- 


Indian. 


484  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

band  considering  that  he  performs  his  part  when  he  provides  food 
for  his  family,  watches  over  them,  and  fights  for  their  protection. 
He  devotes  himself  with  his  comrades  to  exercises  of  skill  and 
strength,  and  too  often  to  games  of  chance,  or  passes  his  leisure 
in  discussing  hunts  and  wars,  or  in  Hstening  to  the  recitals  of 
some  old  man  skilled  in  recalhng  past  exploits. 

A  certain  number  of  tribes  are  now  partially  civilized,  are  oc- 
cupied with  agriculture,  and  have  adopted  the  costume  of  the 
whites.  Some  have  adopted  the  Christian  religion,  as,  for  instance, 
the  Cherokees.  Among  all  of  them  are  missionaries,  who  labor 
with  great  success.  The  tribes  which  have  continued  the  most 
numerous  are  the  Sioux,  Greeks,  Pawnees,  Osages,  loways,  &;c. 
Negro  slaves  cultivate  the  plantations  of  the  Southern  States, 
especially  those  of  the  maritime  plain. 

The  Atlantic  Plain. —  This  plain  extends  from  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  from  the  peninsula 
of  Florida  to  that  of  Nova  Scotia.  At  the  south  the  coast  is 
indented  with  numerous  bays  and  inlets,  and  lined  with  many 
islands,  sand  bars,  and  reefs,  which  render  navigation  difficult  and 
dangerous.  Towards  the  north,  on  the  contrary,  the  soil,  which 
is  less  fertile  and  more  elevated,  is  bordered  with  fine  roadsteads 
and  excellent  harbors,  which  have  wonderfully  favored  the  in- 
crease of  the  commerce  and  navigation  of  the  United  States. 

The  climate  of  this  plain  varies  considerably,  according  to  the 
latitude  ;  the  summers  are  generally  very  warm,  the  winters  ex- 
tremely severe,  and  the  changes  of  temperature  are  every  where 
sudden  and  frequent.  At  the  south,  where  the  heat  is  experi- 
enced in  the  greatest  intensity,  the  air  is  quite  unhealthy  from 
the  month  of  July  to  the  month  of  November ;  the  yellow  fever 
is  often  prevalent.  At  the  north,  the  temperature  is  that  of  North- 
ern Europe ;  and  yet,  according  to  its  geographical  position,  one 
would  expect  to  find  it  the  same  as  that  of  the  south  of  France. 
At  Paris  the  temperature  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  New  York, 
although  it  is  over  eight  degrees  farther  north.  The  active  and 
industrious  population  of  New  England,  turning  to  profit  the 
effects  even  of  the  rigor  of  the  climate,  realize  considerable  rev- 
enues by  loading  300  or  400  ships  with  beautiful  blocks  of  ice, 
which  they  despatch  even  into  the  East  Indies,  braving  the  equa- 
tor and  ita  scorchiner  heat. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMEEICA.  485 

The  metals  are  those  of  which  we  have  spoken  in  connection 
with  the  Appalachians  —  a  little  gold,  iron,  coal,  and  salt.  The 
vegetable  productions  differ  sensibly  according  to  latitude.  The 
trees  of  the  north  are  generally  the  same  as  those  of  temperate 
Europe.  Nowhere,  however,  do  we  find  so  great  a  variety 
among  the  forest  species.  According  to  the  celebrated  Swiss 
naturalist,  M.  Agassiz,  there  exist  in  the  United  States  no  less 
than  40  species  of  oaks.  Many  varieties  of  the  walnut  are  also 
noticed  —  the  white  walnut,  the  black  walnut,  or  hickory,  valu- 
able for  the  oil  of  its  nut  and  the  hardness  of  its  wood,  the  pecan, 
which  is  still  another  species,  &c.  Fruit  trees  —  pears,  apples, 
peaches,  plums,  and  cherries  —  are  very  common  ;  the  vine  and 
olive  have  not  succeeded.  The  cereals  yield  abundant  harvests, 
and  the  United  States,  which  already  supply  the  greater  part  of 
the  American  coasts  with  flour,  do  also,  in  case  of  need,  furnish 
many  European  countries.  Maize  is  cultivated  in  abundance 
almost  every  where. 

The  sugar  maple  of  the  Northern  States  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  useful  trees  which  is  met  with  in  this  part  of 
America.  The  wood  is  used  for  cabinet  work  and  fuel,  and  from 
its  sap  is  obtained  a  sugar  almost  identical  with  that  of  the  cane 
and  beet  root,  which  sap  is  said  to  contain  more  sugar  than  an 
equal  amount  yielded  by  the  latter.  Every  tree,  according  to  its 
size,  yields  on  an  average  from  four  to  six  pounds.  In  the  first 
days  of  spring,  (even  when  the  ground  is  still  covered  with 
snow,)  at  the  period  when  the  sap  is  in  motion,  there  are  made 
in  the  south  side,  one  or  two  feet  above  the  soil,  two  inclined 
holes,  of  little  depth,  in  which  is  inserted  a  faucet  of  elder  or 
bark,  conducting  into  a  trough  the  liquor,  which  without  this  pre- 
caution would  run  down  the  bark  of  the  tree.  This  liquor,  care- 
fully collected,  is  boiled  over  an  active  fire,  skimmed,  filtered, 
then  reheated,  and  when  it  has  acquired  the  consistency  of  a  thick 
sirup,  is  poured  into  moulds.  This  substance  then  presents  the 
same  color  as  cask  sugar ;  it  is  brown  and  hard,  but  may  be  per- 
fectly refined.  Few  would  suspect  that  the  quantity  of  maple 
sugar  manufactured  in  the  United  States  amounts  annually  to 
more  than  10,000  tons. 

The  plains  of  the  south  present  a  very  peculiar  vegetation,  of 
41* 


486  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

an  extremely  varied  aspect.  Sometimes  they  consist  of  vast 
sandy  plains,  covered  with  forests  of  pines  and  red  cedars,  or 
Virginia  junipers  ;  sometimes  of  marshy  forests,  where  the  man- 
grove, the  salt  water  shrub,  intermingles  with  wild  vines,  sassa- 
fras, magnolia,  tulip,  and  catalpa  trees,  the  Venus's  fly  trap,. and 
the  resinous  liquid  amher,  from  whose  trunk  exudes  a  very  odorif- 
erous balsamic  substance,  used  in  perfumery  and  medicine. 

The  great  staple  products  of  the  portion  of  the  United  States 
with  which  we  are  now  occupied,  and  which  are  nowhere  of  such 
superior  quality  or  obtained  in  such  considerable  quantities,  are 
rice,  tobacco,  and  cotton. 

The  rice  of  Carolina  and  Georgia  is  considered  the  best  in 
the  world.  It  usually  brings  double  the  price  of  that  which  is 
obtained  from  the  East  Indies ;  it  is  exported  into  Europe  to  a 
very  great  amount.  This  portion  of  agricultural  industry  is 
executed  on  a  great  scale ;  thus  very  remarkable  machines  are 
employed  for  winnowing  the  rice ;  by  means  of  steam,  enormous 
pestles  are  set  in  motion,  and  made  to  descend  upon  the  grains  of 
rice  w^ith  just  the  degree  of  force  necessary  for  removing  the 
delicate  husk  which  envelops  them,  without  crushing  the  kernels. 
The  soil  in  wliich  the  rice  is  sown  requires  to  be  kept  extremely 
wet,  so  that  the  root  may  be  constantly  under  water ;  it  yields 
two  crops  annually,  the  first  in  May,  and  the  second  in  October ;  it 
is  harvested  and  threshed  like  wheat.     In  the  United  States  the 


Tobacco  Plant. 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  487 

cultivation  o^  tobacco  is  extensively  pursued,  especially  in  Maryland 
and  Virginia.  This  tobacco  is  not  of  the  first  quality,  but  its  pro- 
duction is  yearly  increasing,  the  youth  of  our  time  yielding  more 
and  more  to  the  temptation  of  adding  to  the  real  wants  which 
nature  has  imposed  upon  them,  the  slavish  and  expensive  neces- 
sity of  tobacco  smoking  and  chewing.  The  tribute  levied  in 
1853  by  the  French  government  upon  this  growing  passion  alone 
amounted,  all  costs  paid,  to  the  enormous  sum  of  $27,000,000. 

The  Americans  at  the  south  are  particularly  proud  of  their 
cotton  plantations,  whose  progress  enters  largely  into  that  vein 
of  marvellous  prosperity  which  distinguishes  the  United  States. 
The  cotton  tree,  which  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  precious 
plants  which  God  has  placed  within  the  reach  of  man,  presents 
itself  both  in  the  form  of  an  herb  and  that  of  a  shrub,  from-  9  to 
15  feet  high.  The  latter  is  the  most  cultivated.  The  fruit  is 
a  legume,  and  contains  many  seeds,  enveloped  in  a  silky  down 
of  extreme  fineness,  which  is  collected  as  soon  as  the  fruit  opens 
spontaneously. 

The  seeds  are  separated  from  the  down,  which  is  carded,  spun, 
and  manufactured  into  cloth  of  all  kinds.  One  can  scarcely  con- 
ceive of  the  immense  quantity  of  cotton  goods  which  are  now 
manufactured  in  Europe  ;  England  alone  manufactures  7,000,000 
or  8,000,000  of  yards  a  week,  and  to  the  amount  of  $250,000,000 
a  year ;  in  the  United  States  it  amounts  to  $62,000,000.  And 
after  the  cotton  has  rendered  all  sorts  of  services  as  cloth,  it  is 
conveyed  in  the  form  of  rags  to  the  paper  mills,  to  be  converted 
into  paper,  and  become  the  future  repository  of  the  human 
thought  and  the  teachings  of  science.  For  the  season  which 
closed  in  September,  1853,  the  production  of  cotton  has  been 
officially  fixed  at  1,200,000,000  of  pounds^  the  sale  of  which 
must  have  exceeded  $120,000,000.  Of  the  total  quantity  fur- 
nished to  commerce  by  the  different  countries  which  produce  it, 
it  is  estimated  that  86  hundredths  are  procured  from  the  United 
States,  whilst  the  exports  of  the  East  Indies  constitute  only  4 
hundredths,  those  of  Egypt  also  4  hundredths,  those  of  Brazil  3 
hundredths,  and  those  of  all  the  other  countries  together,  less  than 
1  hundredth.  The  cotton  commerce  is  assuredly  the  most  con- 
siderable in  the  world,  next  to  that  of  grain ;  and  yet  we  look 


488  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

forward  to  a  time  when  the  former  commodity  will  prove  insuf- 
ficient to  meet  the  wants  of  industry,  so  much  have  its  manufac- 
ture and  consumption  recently  increased.  Thus  a  somewhat 
prolonged  suspension  of  this  manufacture  would  assume  in  many 
countries,  and  especially  in  England,  all  the  features  of  a  public 
disaster.  The  different  species  of  cotton  are  divided  into  two 
great  classes  —  the  upland  or  short-stapled  cotton,  which  forms 
more  than  90  per  cent,  of  the  American  production,  and  the  sea 
island,  or  long-stapled  cotton,  which  flourishes  in  soils  bordering 
on  the  sea,  and  especially  in  the  islands  of  Georgia ;  the  produce 
of  the  latter  is  much  less  than  that  of  the  upland. 

The  animals  of  the  Atlantic  plain  are  not  as  remarkable  as  its 
plants.  All  the  domestic  animals  of  Europe  are  found  there  — 
stag$,  ounces,  deer,  bears,  lynxes,  wolves,  foxes,  wildcats,  Ameri- 
can badgers,  porcupines,  mephitic  weasels,  wild  turkeys,  wander- 
ing pigeons,  which  fly  in  companies  of  many  thousands,  colins, 
which  resemble  the  quails  of  the  old  world,  herons,  flamingoes, 
and  many  aquatic  birds. 

An  interesting  animal,  frequently  met  with  in  the  forests  of  the 
United  States,  as  also  in  South  America,  is  the  opossum,  called 
also  Virginia  opossum.  This  is  a  quadruped  of  the  size  of  a 
large  cat,  with  pointed  ears,  and  a  long,  prehensile  tail,  covered 
with  coarse  gray  hair.     It  defends  itself  against  its  enemies  by 


Opossum 


THE  CONTINENT  OF   AMERICA.  489 

diffusing  an  offensive  and  fetid  matter ;  notwithstanamg  which  it 
is  sometimes  killed  for  the  sake  of  its  flesh.  The  opossum  is 
a  somewhat  nocturnal  animal,  which  usually  passes  the  day  asleep 
in  its  burrow ;  at  night  it  sallies  forth  in  search  of  birds  and 
their  eggs,  or,  in  default  of  these,  insects,  reptiles,  or  even  fruits. 
But  the  principal  peculiarity  of  this  animal  is  a  kind  of  pouch, 
suspended  underneath  its  body,  in  which  its  young  are  reared, 
and  from  which,  when  they  have  nearly  attained  the  size  of  a 
mouse,  they  begin  to  emerge  and  play  in  the  grass.  At  the 
slightest  alarm,  a  little  cry  from  the  mother  summons  them  into 
this  sack,  and  she  retreats  with  them  into  her  burrow ;  or  if  they 
are  too  large  for  all  to  find  room  in  the  pouch,  they  leap  upon  her 
back,  where  they  sustain  themselves  by  winding  their  tail  around 
hers. 

Another  quadruped  of  these  regions,  which  is  also  a  great 
destroyer  of  the  nests  and  young  of  birds,  as  likewise  of  maize 
plantations,  is  the  raccoon,  an  animal  of  the  size  of  a  fox,  with  a 
pointed  muzzle,  beautiful  fur  of  a  grayish  brown,  and  a  tail  an- 


Raccoon. 

nulated  with  brown  and  white.     It  is  very  easily  tamed,  and  per- 
forms a  thousand  tricks  for  the  amusement  of  its  master ;  but  the 


490  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

latter  must  always  be  on  his  guard  against  its  almost  incurable 
propensity  to  abstract  the  eggs  from  the  poultry  yard,  if  not  to  per- 
petrate still  greater  mischief.  It  is  much  hunted  in  the  United 
States  both  on  account  of  its  flesh  and  fur.  The  coati-inondi  — 
quadrupeds  very  similar  to  raccoons,  but  still  more  carnivorous  — 


Coati-Mo^idL 

are  disagreeable  in  captivity,  owing  to  their  capricious  disposition, 
their  invincible  obstinacy,  and  their  passion  for  overturning  and 
displacing  every  object  which  comes  within  their  reach.  The 
coati  climbs  trees  with  all  the  agility  of  a  monkey,  and  it  is  an 
extraordinary  trait  of  this  animal,  that  it  is  the  only  one  of  its 
species  which  descends  in  a  reversed  position ;  that  is  to  say, 
head  downwards. 

The  population  is  composed  entirely  of  whites  in  the  Northern 
States,  and  of  whites,  mulattoes,  and  negroes  in  the  Southern 
States.  The  white  population  of  the  Atlantic  States  is  generally 
of  English  descent.  The  Americans  of  this  region  are  enterpris- 
ing, calculating  men,  of  a  rare  force  of  will  and  of  indomitable 
perseverance,  passionately  fond  of  liberty,  and  capable  of  enjoying 
it  without  disorder,  respecting  the  law,  which  requires  neither 
soldiers  nor  gendarmes  for  its  protection,  deeply  penetrated  with 
domestic  affection  and  respect  for  woman,  who  is  there  more 
thoroughly  educated  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world ;  in  a 
word,  trained  from  infancy  to  a  sense  of  duty  under  the  stern  dis- 
cipline of  a  rigid  Protestantism,  whose  principles  are  constantly 
inculcated  among  them,  in  the  bosom  of  the  family,  in  the  innu- 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  491 

merable  schools,  and  more  especially  in  the  excellent  Sunday 
schools,  to  which  the  best  portion  of  the  population,  and  even  the 
first  magistrates,  esteem  it  an  honor  to  lend  their  support.  The 
government  maintains  no  religious  establishment,  each  individual 
being  at  liberty  to  join  whatever  church  he  prefers,  and  for  the 
support  of  which  he  contributes  as  he  may  feel  disposed.  It 
thence  results  that  each  of  these  churches,  being  able  to  rely 
upon  voluntary  and  devoted  adherents,  can  exert  a  greater  activity 
in  providing  for  the  religious  wants  which  are  experienced  in  its 
own  vicinity  and  throughout  the  world.  Thus,  through  the  most 
perfect  religious  freedom,  the  diversity  of  religions  and  sects,  by 
more  completely  satisfying  the  various  religious  sentiments  of  in- 
dividuals, tends,  ultimately,  by  a  rivalry  in  efforts  and  sacrifices, 
to  regenerate  and  moralize  the  people. 

The  Basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  —  Canada  is  the  basin 
of  the  majestic  River  St.  Lawrence,  which,  flowing  from  west  to 
east,  empties  into  the  gulf  of  the  same  name.  The  western  por- 
tion, which  is  traversed  by  the  upper  course  of  the  river,  and  is 
called  Upper  Canada,  or  Canada  West,  is  undulated,  intersected 
by  chains  of  hills,  and  especially  remarkable  for  its  great' lakes. 
Lower  Canada,  or  Canada  East,  which  comprehends  the  lower 
basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  east  of  the  Ottawa  River,  is  generally 
flat,  presenting  only  here  and  there  a  few  isolated  mountains. 
These  plains  are  almost  all  covered  by  vast  forests,  and  cultiva- 
tion extends  but  little  beyond  the  borders  of  the  great  river. 
The  St.  Lawrence  renders  all  this  country,  and  especially  Lower 
Canada,  one  of  the  most  picturesque  and  diversified  regions  that 
can  any  where  be  found.  The  climate  is  considered  extremely 
salubrious,  although  severely  cold  in  winter,  and  very  hot  in  sum- 
mer. Canada  is  situated  under  the  same  latitude  as  France; 
but  its  temperature  is  far  more  severe.  The  first  snow  storms 
occur  towards  the  close  of  October,  and  from  that  time  the  cold 
daily  increases  in  intensity.  When  the  earth  is  uniformly  cov- 
ered with  a  thick,  icy  mantle,  the  snowy  whirlwinds  are  succeeded 
by  a  calm  and  serene  atmosphere,  often,  however,  of  such  keen- 
ness that  if  a  European  suffers  his  face  to  remain  uncovered  for 
a  moment,  he  runs  the  risk  of  experiencing  painful  consequences. 
When  the  air  is  still,  even  the  most  extreme  cold  can  be  endured ; 


I 


492  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

but  this  is  not  the  case  when  the  wind  is  continually  assailing 
one's  person  with  its  icy  blasts.  One  day  during  the  time  occu- 
pied in  traversing  a  space  of  300  feet,  20  soldiers  of  a  battalion 
had  their  left  cheeks  frozen  almost  simultaneously.  Sometimes, 
within  doors,  one's  back  may  be  half  benumbed  with  the  cold 
while  he  is  seated  in  front  of  a  stove  so  hot  that  he  is  obliged  to 
screen  his  eyes  with  his  hands ;  at  other  times,  ink  congeals  at 
the  extremity  of  the  pen  with  which  one  is  writing.  Provisions 
of  all  kinds,  preserved  by  the  cold,  are  sold  in  a  frozen  condition  ; 
hogs  upright  on  their  stiff  legs,  and  milk  by  the  pound,  in  blocks 
of  white  ice.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  winter  is  to  the  Canadians 
the  season  of  activity  and  diversions.  As  soon  as  both  good  and 
bad  roads  have  become  macadamized  by  the  snow,  thousands  of 
sleighs  circulate  without  obstacle  to  the  silvery  sound  of  the  bells, 
transporting  in  every  direction  the  Canadian  peasants,  warmly 
enveloped  in  thick  garments  and  buffalo  robes.  The  rivers 
especially  are  transformed  into  safe  and  convenient  roads,  over 
which  they  glide  with  fearful  rapidity.  The  snow  does  not  melt 
until  ^pril ;  the  spring  is  very  short,  presenting  little  but  an 
alternation  of  warm  days  and  cold  winds.  The  snow,  which  thaws 
by  day,  forms  a  mud,  that  freezes  during  the  night ;  for  some 
weeks  the  roads  are  rotten,  as  the  Canadians  sa}^, — that  is,  entirely- 
broken  up, — and  communications  are  forcibly  inteiTupted;  but 
as  soon  as  the  snow  disappears  from  certain  places,  the  soil  im- 
mediately produces  in  these  oases  a  thousand  charming  little 
flowers.  In  summer  the  heat  is  excessive  ;  the  drought  parches 
the  earth;  repeated  thunder-bolts  burst  from  the  stormy  sky, 
which  from  time  to  time  pours  forth  a  perfect  deluge  of  rain,  so 
that  the  traveller  might  almost  fancy  himself  in  the  tropical 
regions.  Autumn  clothes  the  forests  in  the  richest  and  most 
varied  hues ;  the  transition,  however,  is  but  brief  to  the  rigor 
of  winter. 

Vegetation.  —  It  has  been  said,  although  with  a  certain  degree 
of  exaggeration,  that  Canada  was  merely  a  vast  forest.  Its 
forests  undoubtedly  constitute  one  of  its  principal  sources  of 
wealth.  England  obtains  thence  an  enormous  quantity  of  build- 
ing wood,  masts,  planks,  staves,  &c.  This  is  a  commerce  which 
alone  occupies  from  900  to  1000  ships,  and  more  than  12,000 


THE   CONTINENT   OP  AMERICA.  493 

persons.  Many  ships  for  English  commerce  are  also  built  in  the 
ports  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  wood  is  cut  in  winter  —  a 
long  and  arduous  labor,  but  one  which  the  Canadian  woodcutters 
execute  with  extraordinary  skill.  They  often  dry  the  forests 
beforehand ;  for  this  purpose  they  merely  girdle  the  trees,  by 
making  in  their  trunk  a  continuous  and  circular  gash,  from  two 
to  three  inches  in  depth.  The  trees,  when  cut  and  trimmed,  are 
converted  into  immense  rafts,  on  which  cabins  are  constructed, 
serving  as  habitations  for  the  woodcutters  and  their  families. 
These  rafts,  which  are  often  one  or  two  miles  in  length,  descend 
the  St.  Lawrence,  and  after  experiencing  a  thousand  perils,  are 
anchored  near  Quebec,  the  capital  of  Canada,  where  they  are 
usually  sold.  The  dry  rot  is  the  principal  defect  of  the  Canadian 
woods.  The  family  of  fir  trees  is  the  most  numerous ;  next  to 
them  the  maples,  from  which  also  sugar  is  extracted,  as  in  the 
United  States,  birches,  lindens,  American  elms,  oaks,  which 
thrive  but  indifferently,  the  Canada  poplars,  which  sometimes 
attain  100  feet  in  height  and  36  in  circumference,  &c.  The  light 
festoons  of  the  wild  vine  are  a  characteristic  ornament  of  these 
Canadian  forests,  but  the  climate  of  Canada  would  prove  too 
cold  for  the  cultivated  vine.  Another  important  product  of  these 
forests  is  the  potash,  which  is  obtained  by  burning  the  wood, 
making  a  lye  of  the  ashes,  and  causing  this  lye  to  evaporate  over 
the  fire.  This  substance,  which  exists  in  greater  or  less  quanti- 
ties in  most  plants,  has  much  resemblance  to  soda ;  it  is  a  species 
of  white,  or  gray,  and  very  caustic  alkali,  employed  in  the  arts. 
It  is  from  North  America  and  Russia  that  commerce  obtains  the 
most  potash. 

The  alimentary  and  textile  substances  are  not  wanting,  for  the 
soil  is  generally  fertile,  and  produces  all  kinds  of  cereals,  flax, 
hemp,  and  even  tobacco  ;  legumes  and  fruits,  (except  those  which 
require  a  longer  summer  in  order  to  attain  maturity :)  pears, 
apples,  cherries,  and  melons  are  cultivated ;  strawberries  and 
raspberries  grow  profusely,  and  require  no  care.  A  plant  pecu- 
liar to  this  country,  known  under  the  name  of  wild  rice,  grows 
abundantly  in  the  mud  of  the  rivers ;  it  furnishes  nourishment  to 
the  wandering  Indians,  as  likewise  to  the  birds  of  the  marshes. 

Animals.  —  The  domestic  animals  and  poultry  are  such  as  are 
42 


494  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

found  in  most  European  countries ;  but  Canada  is  especially  re- 
nowned for  its  wild  beasts,  and  its  valuable  fur-clad  animals,  such 
as  the  stag,  the  American  elk,  the  deer,  the  roebuck,  the  bison, 
the  gray  squirrel,  the  marten,  the  ermine,  the  mephitic  weasel, 
the  hare,  the  rabbit,  the  wildcat,  the  fox,  the  wolf,  and  the  bear. 
The  last,  guided  by  instinct,  seeks,  before  the  approach  of  winter, 
a  tree  with  a  hollow  trunk  which  it  can  easily  climb,  in  order  to 
take  up  its  quarters  in  the  interior.  But  as  soon  as  the  fii'st 
spring  breezes  are  felt,  the  animal  descends  backwards  from  the 
lofty  apartment  where  it  has  so  long  slumbered.  The  marshes 
nourish  otters  and  beavers.  The  latter,  which  were,  for  a  long 
time,  the  principal  object  of  the  Canadian  hunts,  have  by  degrees 
retreated,  and  almost  disappeared  before  the  innovating  progress 
of  the  human  race  ;  they,  at  least,  no  longer  enjoy  sufficient  secu- 
rity to  undertake  those  ingenious  constructions  which  have  ren- 
dered them  celebrated,  and  of  which  we  shall  speak  hereafter. 
The  birds  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  of  the  United  States  : 
among  others  may  be  seen  many  wild  turkeys  ;  and  it  is  a  singu- 
lar fact  that  even  humming  birds  and  fireflies  wander  thither 
during  the  heat  of  summer. 

The  population  is  composed  almost  exclusively  of  whites ;  the 
remnants  of  the  Indian  tribes  are  very  inconsiderable,  and  have, 
for  the  most  part,  adopted  the  agricultural  life,  and  a  part  of  the 
manners,  customs,  and  religious  principles  of  the  whites ;  they 
are  perfectly  peaceable,  but  are  gradually  becoming  extinct,  with 
the  exception  of  a  small  number,  who  wander  without  fixed  habi- 
tations in  the  mountains  of  the  north ;  and  about  five  thousand 
others,  descendants  of  the  celebrated  tribes  of  the  Hurons,  Iro- 
quois, Abenakis,  Algonquins,  &c.,  who  live  collected  in  villages, 
principally  on  the  borders  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  whence  they 
repair  to  the  cities  to  dispose  of  the  products  of  their  industry  — 
their  chase  and  fishery.  All  are  annually  visited  by  Cathohc 
missionaries,  who  have  even  erected  chapels  at  certain  posts ;  the 
Protestants  have  scarcely  accomplished  any  thing  among  them. 
The  white  population  of  Canada  is  divided  into  two  wholly  dis- 
tinct races  — that  of  Upper  Canada,  which  consists  almost  entirely 
of  English  colonists,  an  enterprising,  active,  and  industrious  race, 
which  multiplies  with  singular  rapidity,  and  will  shortly  be  pre- 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  495 

dominant  in  the  country  as  well  in  number  as  in  energy ;  and 
that  of  Lower  Canada,  composed  of  descendants  of  the  first 
colonists  whom  France  despatched  thither  during  the  period  when 
she  occupied  this  country.  They  are  simple,  polite,  gay,  and 
peaceable  men,  but  hasty,  reckless,  superficial,  and  generally  very 
ignorant.  They  have  preserved  almost  unchanged  the  old  social 
institutions  of  France,  such  as  they  were  before  the  revolution  ; 
and  by  their  apathy,  their  gross  superstition,  their  ignorance,  and 
their  poverty,  they  form  a  striking  contrast  to  all  their  neighbors 
of  the  English  race.  With  the  exception  of  a  small  number,  the 
French  Canadians  are  all  Catholics,  and  strongly  attached  to 
their  priests  and  to  their  church,  which  enjoys  the  most  entire 
liberty.  Among  the  Canadians  of  English  origin,  some  who 
have  emigrated  from  Ireland  are  Catholics ;  but  the  great  majority, 
especially  in  Upper  Canada,  are  Protestants. 

Northern  Plains.  —  From  the  Minnesota  watershed,  where 
the  Mississippi  takes  its  rise,  the  plains  lying  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  incline  northward  and  eastward. 

Covered  with  rocks,  woods,  and  vast  marshes,  interspersed  with 
numerous  lakes  and  rivers,  which  in  the  high  floods  wander  from 
one  lake  to  another,  overflow  on  many  sides,  and  often  change 
their  names,  these  plains  have  a  certain  analogy  to  Siberia, 
Finland,  and  Lapland.  They  complete  that  body  of  cold,  marshy, 
and  arid  plains  of  the  old  and  new  world  which  border  the  Arc- 
tic Ocean. 

Climate. — The  temperature,  undoubtedly,  varies  somewhat  with 
the  latitude ;  it  is,  however,  almost  every  where  very  rigorous, 
and  scarcely  encourages  vegetation.  The  winter  lasts  about 
eight  months,  from  October  to  May,  and  the  cold  is  sometimes  so 
intense  that  water  freezes  in  household  utensils  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  a  red  hot  stove.  This  intense  cold  is  not,  however,  so 
severely  felt  as  one  would  suppose,  because,  while  it  lasts,  the  air 
continues  perfectly  still.  The  slightest  breeze  would  instantly 
freeze  the  face  with  which  it  came  in  contact,  and  would  prove 
a  sufficient  warning  to  prevent  any  one  from  venturing  out. 
This  dry  cold  is,  however,  very  healthy  ;  much  more  so  than  the 
heat  of  summer,  which  is  intolerable  during  some  weeks,  and 
which   engenders   such  quantities  of  flies  and  mosquitos  as  to 


496  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

render  the  country  almost  insupportable.  Strange  as  it  may 
seem,  in  this  cold  country,  mosquito  nets  are,  for  a  certain  length 
of  time,  as  essential  as  in  the  torrid  zone.  In  vain  does  one  fdl 
his  room  with  thick  smoke,  by  burning  in  it  powder  or  damp 
moss ;  nothing  can  completely  insure  him  against  the  attacks  of 
these  formidable  enemies. 

Vegetation.  —  Although,  beyond  the  56th  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude, the  subsoil  is  perpetually  frozen  at  a  depth  of  some  feet 
below  the  surface,  trees  grow  in  certain  places  as  far  as  64  de- 
grees. Farther  still,  the  gloomy  and  majestic  forests  of  larches 
and  firs  give  place  to  the  birch,  which  creeps  on  the  ground; 
finally,  nothing  is  to  be  seen  but  plains  covered  with  lichens  and 
mosses,  with  here  and  there  a  few  spots  clothed  with  thin  and 
slender  grass,  which  grows  in  summer  along  the  rivers  and 
lakes. 

In  the  southern  part  a  few  settlements  have  been  founded, 
like  that  of  the  Red  River,  where  all  kinds  of  cereals  are  culti- 
vated, and  promising  one  day  to  become  prosperous  colonies ; 
but  the  country  is  generally  covered  with  dense  and  almost  pri- 
meval forests.  Nothing  can  be  more  imposing  than  the  spectacle 
of  these  gigantic  and  veteran  fir  trees,  which  often,  sinking  be- 
neath the  weight  of  years,  cause  the  destruction  of  others  which 
are  adjacent  to  them.  The  ice  storms,  so  called,  are  especially 
terrible  in  these  regions.  After  a  thick  layer  of  snow  has  fallen, 
if  there  supervene  a  temporary  thaw,  or  a  slight  rain,  soon  fol- 
lowed by  severe  cold,  the  frost  clothes  the  firs  and  their  branches 
with  a  heavy  vesture  of  ice,  beneath  which  the  tallest  trees  bend 
and  stagger  in  the  slightest  breeze.  On  a  calm  day,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  imagine  any  thing  more  beautiful  than  the  reflection  of 
the  sun  upon  these  branches,  where  every  icicle  sparkles  like  a 
cluster  of  diamonds.  But  if  a  hurricane  arises,  and  one  of  these 
heavily-laden  firs  sinks  beneath  the  weight  of  ice,  and  is  precipi- 
tated upon  those  contiguous  to  it,  the  latter  carry  with  them 
others,  and  the  whole  forest,  uprooted  as  by  an  avalanche,  falls 
with  a  wild  crashing,  which  resounds  to  a  distance  like  the  dis- 
charges of  artillery. 

The  only  fruits  are  wild  berries,  in  which  the  woods  abound. 
Black  and  red  currants  and  gooseberries  are  found  in  very  great 


THE   CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  497 

profusion  ;  but  the  former  are  bitter  and  the  latter  small.  The 
marshberry  resembles  the  raspberry  in  form;  it  is  of  a  pale 
yellow  color,  and  grows  on  a  stunted  bush  almost  close  to  the 
ground.  Strawberries  are  likewise  found  in  abundance  in  all 
these  regions.  Another  substance,  which  may  also  serve  for  food 
in  extreme  cases,  is  a  species  of  lichen  which  grows  on  rocks,  and 
to  which  the  Canadians  have  given  the  singular  name  of  rock 
tripe.  This  lichen  resembles  a  dried  sea  weed,  and  the  most  im- 
perious hunger  alone  would  enable  one  to  relish  it.  Hunters, 
after  grating  it  on  stones,  boil  it,  and  extract  from  it  a  gelatinous 
substance,  even  less  nutritious  than  the  Iceland  moss,  but  which 
may  for  a  short  time  appease  the  cravings  of  hunger. 

Labor  is  extremely  repugnant  to  the  nature  of  the  Indians, 
who  are  wont  to  say  that  the  Great  Spirit  made  the  white  man 
to  cultivate  the  earth,  and  the  red  man  to  pursue  the  chase.  If 
they  possessed  a  disposition  for  agriculture,  it  would  prove  of  no 
avail,  at  least  throughout  the  greater  portion  of  these  vast  terri- 
tories, for  in  this  rigorous  climate  the  Europeans  themselves  can 
neither  raise  legumes  nor  potatoes.  The  chase,  with  all  its  un- 
certainties, which  render  it  so  disastrous  a  dependence  to  pop- 
ulations utterly  destitute  of  foresight,  affords  almost  the  only 
resource  of  the  wandering  tribes  of  natives ;  divine  goodness 
has,  however,  endowed  them  with  fish  and  game  in  more  than 
ordinary  abundance,  to  say  nothing  of  the  profits  which  they 
realize  from  the  magnificent  furs  that  are  furnished  by  most  of 
the  large  animals  which  inhabit  the  forests  and  plains,  even  upon 
the  borders  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  animals  of  the  Hudson  plain  are  nearly  the  same  as  those 
of  the  boreal  plains  of  the  old  world,  and  the  greater  part  are 
sufficiently  known  to  us.  For  taking  game  of  ordinary  size,  the 
Indians  and  whites  make  use  of  snares,  or  traps  of  wood  or  iron, 
which,  seizing  the  animal  by  the  paws,  or  nose,  possess  the  advan- 
tage of  doing  no  damage  to  its  precious  fur.  Besides  the  black 
fox,  there  are  silver  foxes,  white  and  black  foxes,  and  red  foxes, 
whose  skins  are  valuable.  The  marten  furs  are  now  one  of  the 
most  profitable  articles  of  the  fur  trade ;  those  of  the  otter  and 
lynx  are  also  of  importance  ;  those  of  gluttons,  badgers,  wolves, 
and  bears  are  of  much  less  value.  The  beaver  was  for  a  long 
42* 


498 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 


time  the  principal  object  of  commerce  among  the  fur  companies, 
but  the  silk  hats  of  Paris  have  wonderfully  diminished  the  de- 
mand for  it.  In  consequence  of  this  invention  the  beavers  are 
no  longer  pursued  with  the  same  avidity,  but  suffered  to  build 
their  habitations  unmolested.  Every  one  is  aware  of  the  inge- 
nuity which  these  animals  display  in  their  astonishing  construc- 
tions. Collected  in  numbers  of  from  200  to  300,  towards  the 
months  of  June  or  July,  they  first  select  a  favorable  location  on  a 
watercourse,  which  will  permit  the  floating  of  their  materials. 
In  order  to  obtain  a  constant  level,  they  are  first  obliged  to  dam 
the  river,  by  means  of  a  dike.  With  the  aid  of  their  powerful 
teeth  they  gnaw  a  tree  on  the  bank  of  the  river,  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  falls  across  the  stream,  and  serves  as  a  foundation  for  all 
their  subsequent  labors.  They  then  trim  it,  fell  other  smaller 
trees  higher  up  the  river,  and  cut  them  in  the  form  of  piles,  which 
they  float  upon  the  water,  and  place  vertically  against  the  large 
trunk  of  the  tree,  by  digging,  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  holes 


Beavers. 


designed  to  receive  the  extremity  of  these  stakes.  Thus  is  formed 
a  very  compact  framework,  after  which  other  beavers  bring  flex- 
ible branches  and  interweave  them  with  the  stakes.     Others  go 


THE    CONTINENT  OF  AMERldA.  499 

in  search  of  earth,  knead  it  with  their  feet,  beat  it  with  their 
tails,  and  then  form  it  into  balls,  which  they  transport  with  their 
teeth,  and  with  which  they  cement  their  masonry.  Many  rows 
of  piles  are  thus  planted,  one  in  front  of  the  other,  so  as  to  raise 
the  water  to  the  requisite  height.  If  the  beavers  can  convenient- 
ly find  a  lake  of  a  permanent  level,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add 
that  they  dispense  with  all  these  labors,  and  proceed  immediately 
to  the  erection  of  their  huts.  The  latter,  which  are  built  on  the 
borders  of  the  water,  are  of  an  almost  circular  form,  and  of  a  size 
varying  from  4  to  8  or  10  feet  in  the  diameter  of  the  interior,  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  inhabitants  which  they  are  destined  to 
contain.  The  walls,  of  about  two  feet  in  thickness,  are  first  raised 
vertically,  and  then  surmounted  by  a  kind  of  dome.  This  habi- 
tation is  almost  always  divided  into  two  stories,  the  lower  of 
which  serves  as  a  storehouse  for  the  bark  and  tender  branches 
which  are  designed  for  winter  provisions.  A  door  opening  to- 
wards the  water,  in  this  part  of  the  house,  enables  the  occupants 
to  issue  thence  by  diving.  The  upper  story  is  more  particularly 
intended  for  the  habitation,  and  the  beavers  keep  it  always  in  a 
state  of  perfect  neatness.  It  is  a  piece  of  good  fortune  to  trappers 
to  encounter  a  village  of  beavers  completely  benumbed  by  the 
cold,  overthrow  their  huts,  and  seize  the  animals  incapable  of 
flight  or  of  self-defence,  and  in  an  extremely  plump  condition. 
In  proportion,  however,  as  hunters  and  civilization  invade  the 
solitudes  of  Hudsonia,  the  villages  of  beavers  become  more  rare  ; 
the  animals  which  survive  disperse,  and  evince,  in  their  state  of 
isolation,  none  of  that  singular  intelligence  which  is  closely  asso- 
ciated with  their  building  instinct  and  social  life. 

Another  little  animal,  whose  habits  have  much  affinity  to  those 
of  the  beaver,  and  whose  fur  is  much  esteemed,  is  the  muskraf, 
which  owes  its  name  to  the  strong  odor  of  musk  which  it  exhales. 
This  is  a  rodent  of  the  size  of  a  rabbit,  but  with  shorter  legs  ;  its 
hind  feet  are  half  webbed,  and  it  has  a  scaly  tail,  as  long  as  its 
body.  They  display  in  their  constructions  almost  as  much  inge- 
nuity as  the  beavers ;  but  as  they  establish  themselves  on  the 
borders  of  ponds,  whose  waters  are  naturally  stagnant,  they  have 
no  occasion  to  construct  dikes,  like  the  former.  The  external 
form  of  their  habitations  is  that  of  a  dome ;  the  materials  are 


500  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

rushes  interwoven  and  plastered  with  clay.     These  huts  often 
form  species  of  villages,  where  the  animals  immure  themselves 


Muskrat. 

during  the  winter ;  in  the  spring  they  disperse  in  couples,  m  the 
high  lands 

The  huffalos  or  lison^  is  also,  in  these  regions,  one  of  the  princi- 
pal objects  of  the  chase,  no  less  on  account  of  its  flesh  than  of 
its  skin.  The  buffalo  meat  is  the  favorite  food  of  the  whites 
and  Indians,  who  dry,  smoke,  and  prepare  it  in  many  ways. 
Among  other  modes  of  preparation,  they  convert  it  into  a  sub- 
stance easy  of  transportation,  and  which,  under  a  light  bulk,  con- 
tains much  nourishment :  this  is  the  pemmican,  a  mixture  of 
melted  fat  and  dried  meat  reduced  to  powder.  It  is  eaten  raw 
or  boiled  ;  one  or  two  pounds,  and  even  less,  suffice  for  the  daily 
nourishment  of  a  man,  and  the  whole  produce  of  an  animal 
weighing  about  80  pounds  may  be  contained  in  a  sack  of  buffalo 
skin.  It  is,  however,  to  be  regretted  that  this  food,  although 
perfectly  wholesome,  is  of  a  very  uninviting  appearance. 

Near  the  coasts  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  many  ptarmigans  are  met 
with,  which  are,  as  we  have  already  observed,  excellent  game  ; 
also  white  hears  of  very  great  size  ;  considerable  herds  of  rein- 
deer ;  and  music  oxen —  singular  quadrupeds,  of  which  we  have  not 
yet  had  occasion  to  speak.  The  musk  ox,  or  ovibos,  (that  is  to 
say,  mutton  ox,)  has  much  more  of  the  aspect  of  the  sheep  than 
that  of  the  ox,  with  its  extremely  short  legs,  covered,  as  well  as 
its  whole  body,  with  very  long  fur,  beneath  which  is  found  a 
silky,  short,  and  thick  hair.  Notwithstanding  their  heavy  foims, 
these  animals  run  with  rapidity,  and  climb  steep  rocks  with  the 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMEEICA.  501 

agility  of  the  chamois.  They  are  the  habitual  companions  of  the 
reindeer,  subsist  like  them  on  buds  and  the  bark  of  trees,  in  the 
season  when  grass  has  entirely  disappeared  beneath  the  snow,  and 
seem  to  revel  in  their  fearful  deserts,  as  the  cattle  of  other  cli- 
mates luxuriate  in  their  rich  pastures.  They  go  in  troops  of  30, 
50,  and  even  100  individuals.  With  their  horns  first  flat  against 
the  head,  and  then  projecting  outwardly  in  a  sharp  point,  these 
animals,  though  of  smaller  size  than  an  ordinary  ox,  are  very  for- 
midable to  the  hunter  who  has  wounded  without  killing  them. 
They  diffuse  a  decided  odor  of  musk,  notwithstanding  which  the 
people  eat  them  with  relish. 

Population.  —  With  the  exception  of  a  small  number  of  colo- 
nists established  on  the  banks  of  the  Red  River  and  Lake  Win- 
nipeg, there  exist  in  Hudsonia  few  whites,  except  the  missionaries 
and  agents  of  the  great  Hudson* s  Bay  Fur  Company,  whom  the 
English  government  has  invested  with  the  sovereignty  of  these 
countries,  and  who  have  founded  at  certain  distances  wooden 
forts,  designed  to  serve  as  markets  for  the  exchange  of  furs,  and 
as  a  protection  for  European  merchants.  The  task  of  obtaining 
the  products  of  the  chase  from  the  Indians,  and  supplying  them 
with  the  counters  of  the  company,  rests  on  the  Canadian  voy- 
ageurs,  (as  they  are  called,)  who  pass  their  lives  in  rowing  over 
the  rivers,  or  in  hunting,  fearing  neither  mosquitos,  the  ice,  nor 
the  lance  of  the  Indian.  They  read  their  route  on  the  mossy 
trees,  divine  the  places  where  the  savages  are  stationed  at  differ- 
ent periods  of  the  year,  and  after  a  pursuit  of  eight  days,  invaria- 
bly overtake  the  animal  or  enemy  that  attempts  to  elude  their 
search.  These  Canadians  have  for  aids  the  half  breeds,  (de- 
scendants of  Indians  and  whites,)  commonly  called  hois-hrules. 
The  latter  associate  with  the  white  voyagers  more  willingly  than 
with  the  red  skins  ;  all  are  baptized,  and  although  their  life  is 
still  roving,  they  have  at  least  ceased  to  be  nomadics,  and  it  is 
always  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  trading  posts  that  they  fix 
their  abode. 

The  agents  of  the  company  pass  the  greater  part  of  the  winter 
in  the  endurance  of  excessive  ennui,  behind  the  palisades  of  the 
forts  which  protect  their  dwellings.  Whoever  breaks  the  monot- 
ony of  his  long  seclusion  by  venturing  forth  must  take  great 


602  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

precautions  against  the  slightest  breath  of  wind.  If  the  air  is 
perfectly  calm,  he  is  enabled  to  hunt  the  ptarmigan  and  the  par- 
tridge ;  but  in  what  a  costume !  his  neck  is  encompassed  by  a 
large  shawl,  whilst  his  head  disappears  from  view  beneath  a  rat- 
skin,  which  conceals  his  ears  and  a  part  of  his  face  ;  his  feet  are 
encased  in  three  pairs  of  woollen  socks,  and  the  Indian  shoes 
known  by  the  name  of  moccasons  ;  fur  mittens  envelop  his  hands, 
and  underneath  his  deerskin  trousers  he  wears  close-fitting  gai- 
ters of  cloth ;  he  dons  a  leather  hood,  lined  with  flannel  and  wad- 
ded with  fur,  which  gives  him  the  aspect  of  a  gray  bear.  If  by 
chance  the  snow  is  soft,  he  is  obliged  to  add  a  pair  of  snowshoes, 
to  prevent  his  sinking  in  it,  but  which  compel  him  to  walk  with 
his  legs  apart,  lifting  the  knee  as  high  as  his  waist. 

The  snowshoes,  or  rackets,  of  which  the  Indians  or  Europeans 
of  these  regions  generally  make  use,  have  no  resemblance  to  a 
shoe.  They  are  composed  of  two  very  light  and  slender  pieces 
of  wood,  which,  bound  together  at  their  two  extremities,  form  to- 
wards the  centre  an  oval, -covered  with  a  network  of  bearskin, 
and  strengthened  by  other  pieces  of  wood  placed  crosswise.  They 
are  from  4  to  6  feet  in  length,  and  from  1  to  2  in  width,  and  are 
attached  only  by  a  very  loose  band  of  leather,  which  passes  over 
the  great  toe.  As  they  are  not  heavy,  they  occasion  no  fatigue  to 
those  who  know  how  to  use  them.  The  snow  is  so  deep  in  this 
country,  that  without  their  assistance  it  would  be  absolutely  im- 
possible to  walk  during  many  months  of  the  year.  Every  time 
that  the  traveller  raises  his  foot,  the  snow  falls  through  the  meshes 
of  the  net.  The  Indians  often  accomplish  with  these  rackets  7, 
10,  and  even  12  leagues  in  a  day.  But  in  damp  weather,  the 
half-melted  snow  clogs  up  the  meshes,  the  racket  becomes  heavy, 
and  often  severely  wounds  the  feet,  insomuch  that  it  frequently 
occasions  the  loss  of  the  nails. 

The  native  populations  are  wholly  independent,  and  maintain 
with  the  English  only  relations  of  exchange  in  the  commerce  of 
furs.  The  northern  shores  are  occupied  by  the  Great  Esqui- 
maux, of  a  little  smaller  stature  than  that  of  the  natives  of  Labra- 
dor, and  whom  travellers  represent  to  us  as  mild,  timid,  destitute 
of  courage,  and  reduced  to  an  extremely  savage  condition  ;  they 
live  only  by  fishing  and  hunting.     The  Indians,  or  red  skins, 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  503 

inhabit  the  interior ;  they  have  no  fixed  habitations,  and  transport 
their  huts  wherever  they  hope  to  find  an  abundant  chase.  The 
dog  is  their  only  domestic  animal,  and  they  willingly  eat  its  flesh. 
Polygamy  reigns  generally  among  these  tribes,  and  the  severest 
labors  are  always  imposed  upon  the  women.  A  great  lighted 
pipe,  circulating  from  mouth  to  mouth,  is,  among  them,  the  token 
of  friendship,  and  is  called  the  calumet  of  peace.  Next  to  the 
chase,  war  was  formerly  their  principal  occupation ;  it  was  car- 
ried on  rather  by  stratagem  and  ambuscade  than  by  open  attacks, 
and  the  fate  reserved  for  their  prisoners  was  a  protracted  death 
amid  the  most  horrible  tortures,  or  the  cliance  of  being  sold  as 
slaves.  Their  manners  are  now  a  little  softened,  and  the  custom 
of  scalping,  that  is  to  say,  of  removing  the  skin  of  the  forehead 
and  head,  with  the  hair,  is  little  practised  except  upon  dead  ene- 
mies. Brandy,  small  pox,  and  famines,  the  consequences  of 
improvidence,  are  the  great  scourges  which  decimate  these  popu- 
lations. The  principal  tribes  are  those  of  the  Chippewas,  who 
dwell  south  of  the  Great  Esquimaux,  and  wage  continual  war 
with  them;  the  Knistennux,  who  occupy  the  gloomy  plains 
south-west  of  Hudson's  Bay ;  the  Sioux  tribe,  which  bear  the 
name  of  Assmiboins,  south-west  of  Lake  Winnipeg,  and  near 
the  frontier  of  the  United  States,  the  Ojib-he-ways.  A  por- 
tion of  these  Indians  have  become  Catholics,  and  are  visited  by 
very  zealous  and  active  missionaries.  In  the  midst  of  other 
tribes  are  established  English  Protestant  missionaries,  who  have 
organized  many  large  and  flourishing  churches.  The  great  ob- 
stacle which  they  encounter  is  not  merely  the  profound  ignorance, 
superstition,  and  cunning  of  the  priests,  or  Indian  sorcerers,  but 
the  dissemination  of  the  natives,  which  obliges  them  to  travel 
hundreds  of  miles,  sometimes  in  canoes,  and  sometimes  in  sledges 
draAvn  by  dogs,  in  order  to  visit  the  savages  in  their  nomadic 
encampments,  and  instruct  them  in  the  knowledge  of  the  gospel. 
Nevertheless,  by  means  of  devotion  and  perseverance,  admirable 
results  have  already  been  achieved. 

Sect.  7.  Lakes  of  America.  —  Even  the  largest  lakes  of 
the  old  world  appear  insignificant  when  compared  with  the  ex- 
tent of  those  of  the  new.  The  American  lakes  contain  more  than 
half  of  the  fresh  water  of  the  globe,  and  it  is  assuredly  a  great 


504  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

benefit  to  mankind  that  Providence  has  thus  located  these  liquid 
masses  in  the  heart  of  a  continent  impenetrable  to  the  waves  of 
the  two  seas.  By  tempering  the  extremes  of  the  climate,  and 
facilitating  general  communications,  such  a  system  of  natural 
canals,  accessible  to  vessels  of  400  tons,  and  connected  together 
by  railroads,  will  present,  in  a  few  years,  the  masterpiece  of  con- 
temporary industry,  combined  with  the  best  employment  of  the 
material  resources  of  the  globe. 

Lakes  of  the  Northern  Plains  of  North  America. 
—  The  lakes  of  these  plains  are  almost  innumerable.  The  whole 
country  is  interspersed  with  lakes,  ponds,  or  rivers,  which,  at  the 
time  of  high  flood,  wander  from  one  basin  to  another,  and  serve 
little  purpose  except  for  facilitating,  during  the  favorable  season, 
the  passage  of  the  fur  merchants  from  one  place  to  another,  in 
their  canoes.  The  principal  of  these  lakes  are  the  Slave  Lake, 
(100  leagues  in  length,  and  from  50  to  60  in  breadth,)  sprinkled 
with  islands  which  produce  a  few  trees,  but  frozen  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  ;  Lake  Athabasca,  or  Lake  of  the  Moun- 
tains, around  which  flourish  firs,  larches,  birches,  and  alders ;  and 
Lake  Winnipeg,  (60  leagues  in  length,  and  from  30  to  40  in 
breadth,)  whose  borders  are  overshadowed  by  sugar  maples  and 
Canada  poplars,  whilst  wild  rice  grows  uncultivated  in  the  vicin- 
ity, together  with  hemp,  barley,  and  rye,  which  the  English  colo- 
nists have  introduced  even  into  these  regions. 

The  Great  Lakes.  —  The  principal  of  these  lakes  are  five 
in  number —  Superior,  Huron,  Michigan,  Erie,  and  Ontario.  The 
first,  situated  at  the  north-west,  is  the  largest  lake  of  the  new 
world,  and  its  surface  is  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  whole  of 
England,  (135  leagues  in  length,  and  60  in  breadth.)  Its  waters 
are  transparent,  deep,  and  very  productive  of  fish.  Tempests  are 
of  frequent  occurrence  upon  this  lake,  and  often  more  severe  than 
upon  the  ocean  itself.  Its  surface  is  more  than  600  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  Atlantic,  and  it  is  nearly  1000  feet  in  depth. 
The  shores  of  this  beautiful  lake,  or  rather  of  this  fresh  water  sea, 
which  seemed  condemned  to  barbarism  and  neglect,  are  beginning 
to  be  civilized  and  populated.  On  the  southern  coast,  rich  veins 
of  copper  have  already  been  discovered.  Subsequent  researches 
have  brought  to  light  still  greater  riches  on  the  northern  coast, 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  505 

as  likewise  gold,  silver,  and  tin  bearings,  which  may  also  acquire 
importance. 

At  the  south-eastern  angle  of  this  basin  are  a  succession  of 
rapids,  called  the  Falls  of  St.  Mary,  through  which  Lake  Supe- 
rior pours  its  waters  into  Lake  Huron.  This  is  a  kind  of  low 
cataract,  nearly  a  mile  long,  whose  waters  violently  precipitate 
themselves  from  one  declivity  to  another.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  portray  the  magnificence  of  this  fall,  which  resembles  a  white 
and  foamy  sea.  Excellent  salmon  trout  are  caught  there,  weigh- 
ing as  many  as  40  pounds.  All  the  vegetation  of  North  America 
seems  to  have  concentrated  itself  around  the  vast  Lake  Huron. 
With  the  exception  of  the  slender  American  larch,  or  tamarack, 
all  the  trees  of  these  gigantic  forests  acquire  a  prodigious  size  — 
the  elm,  oak,  white  pine,  ash,  and  especially  the  plane  trees,  fre- 
quently attain  from  15  to  26  feet  in  circumference.  Many  fish 
are  taken  in  this  lake,  where  every  one  may  fish  according  to  his 
pleasure.  In  winter,  great  holes  are  pierced  in  the  ice,  which 
the  fish  approach  to  breathe  the  air,  and  where  the  line  is  sunk ; 
every  morning,  the  Canadians,  in  their  bark  sledges,  traverse  the 
ice  on  the  borders  of  the  lake,  to  visit  the  apertures  at  the  en- 
trance of  which  they  have  spread  their  bait.  In  summer  they 
make  use  of  the  harpoon.  The  finest  prizes  that  are  taken  in 
these  deep  waters  are  salmon,  of  50  or  60  pounds  weight.  Stur- 
geons are  also  harpooned  there,  from  4  to  5  feet  long,  and  whose 
bodies  are  covered  with  tubercles.  The  sturgeon  may  be  con- 
sidered the  king  of  the  American  rivers  and  lakes. 

Lake  Michigan,  with  fertile  and  well-wooded  banks,  empties 
its  waters,  at  the  north,  into  Lake  Huron ;  it  presents  nothing 
very  remarkable.  It  is  furrowed  by  an  even  greater  number  of 
steamboats  than  the  preceding  lakes. 

Through  the  River  St.  Clair,  Lake  Huron  communicates,  at 
the  south-east,  with  the  small  circular  lake  of  St.  Clair,  whose 
waters  flow  through  the  Detroit  River,  into  the  fourth  of  our 
great  lakes — that  of  Erie — a  basin  of  comparatively  little  depth, 
but  exposed  to  tempests  and  dangerous  fogs. 

From  its  north-eastern  extremity  issues  the  broad  Niugara 
River,  which,  after  being  restricted  towards  the  middle  of  its 
course,  becomes  more  and  more  rapid,  and  soon  forms  the  finest 


506 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATUllE. 


cataract  in  the  world,  the  celebrated  Niagara  Falls.  The  river, 
of  about  a  quarter  of  a  league  in  breadth,  is  divided  by  Goat 
Jslaiid  into  two  unequal  parts,  of  which  the  least  in  breadth,  that 
of  the  south,  falls  from  an  elevation  of  162  feet,  while  that  of  the 
north  falls  from  150  feet  only.  In  the  centre  of  the  Horseshoe 
the  sheet  of  water  is  said  to  be  20  feet  in  thickness,  and  it  is  esti- 
mated that  it  precipitates  about  5,000,000,000  barrels  of  water  in 
24  hours.  Moreover,  the  hydraulic  power  of  the  falls  has  been 
computed  to  be  equivalent  to  that  of  4,500,000  of  horses  —  more 
than  would  be  required  to  set  in  motion  all  the  manufactories  in 


Niagara  Falls. 

the  world.  Thus  the  earth  trembles  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  tre- 
mendous and  incessant  roaring  of  the  cataract  constitutes  the 
loudest  report  that  ever  greets  the  ear  of  man ;  it  is  like  the 
rolling  of  many  thunders,  and  the  Indians  have  justly  bestowed 
upon  this  place  the  name  of  Niagara,  (thunder  of  waters.)  When 
the  weather  is  favorable,  the  roaring  is  heard  for  15  or  20  leagues, 
and  the  perpetual  cloud  of  mist  which  rises  above  its  boiling 
waters  may  be  seen  at  a  distance  of  25  leagues.  From  the 
summit  of  a  tower,  erected  between  the  two  falls,  the  glance 


THE   CONTINENT   OP   AMERICA.  507 

embraces  at  once  the  two  divisions  of  the  cataract,  the  white 
vapory  waterspout  issuing  from  the  gulf,  and  the  double  rainbow, 
which,  created  by  the  reflection  of  the  sun*s  rays,  is  almost  con- 
stantly suspended  above  it.  From  the  two  sides  of  the  island, 
the  water  of  the  river  does  not  seem  very  rapid ;  but  if  one  placed 
his  foot  in  it,  he  would  inevitably  be  swept  away.  Many  accidents 
are  alleged  to  have  occurred  in  consequence  of  acts  of  bravado 
or  imprudence  of  this  nature.  On  the  Canada  side,  one  may  ad- 
vance to  the  foot  of  the  rock,  beneath  the  vast  sheet  of  water ; 
but  this  promenade  is  more  extraordinary  than  agreeable. 

Below  the  cataracts  the  waters  of  the  Niagara  precipitate 
themselves  into  Lahe  Ontario,  a  magnificent  sheet  of  200  leagues 
in  circumference,  whose  borders,  still  tliickly  wooded,  are  covered 
with  rich  towns  or  villages,  manufactories,  and  beautiful  planta- 
tions. The  largest  vessels  can  navigate  this  lake,  but  are  exposed 
to  frequent  hurricanes,  and  find  but  few  good  ports. 

Lakes  of  Mexico.  —  Mexico  contains  a  certain  number  of 
lakes  of  greater  or  less  extent,  none  of  which,  however,  are  so  cel- 
ebrated as  those  of  the  city  of  Mexico.  In  the  centre  of  an  im- 
mense plain  formerly  extended  a  great  basin,  whence  rose,  like 
another  Venice,  the  Mexico  (or  rather  the  Tenochtitlan)  of  the 
ancient  Aztecs.  The  Spaniards,  after  the  conquest,  desired  to 
drain  it ;  but  they  only  partially  succeeded.  From  the  great  lake 
have  been  formed  three  of  small  dimensions,  which  surround  the 
city.  Every  w^here,  at  a  few  feet  below  the  soil,  are  found  sheets 
of  brackish  water,  the  unwholesome  use  of  which  engenders  drop- 
sy, a  malady  very  frequent  in  this  country. 

In  these  lakes  the  Indians  have  bound  together  the  trunks  of 
trees,  so  as  to  make  vast  rafts,  which  they  have  then  covered 
with  a  layer  of  vegetable  earth.  They  sow  this  earth  with  all 
kinds  of  nutritious  plants  and  fragrant  flowers,  which  may  be 
easily  watered  at  any  hour  in  the  day,  and  these  artificial  islands, 
or  floating  oases,  which  are  called  chinampas,  have  become  the 
kitchen  and  flower  gardens  of  Mexico.  If,  seated  in  a  gondola,  one 
glides  among  the  chinampas,  barefooted  Indians  will  come  to  the 
borders  of  their  islands  to  offer  him  exquisite  fruits,  and  flowers 
of  the  most  odoriferous  perfumes,  whilst  multitudes  of  humming 
birds,  flitting  from  chalice,  to  chalice,  sparkle  around  him,  glisten- 
ing, as  it  were,  with  gold,  rubies,  sapphires,  and  emeralds. 


608  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

Lake  Nicaragua.  —  This  lake,  the  largest  of  Central  Amer- 
ica, is  about  60  leagues  in  length,  and  25  in  breadth.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  small  vessels,  but  subject  to  violent  storms.  Its  bottom 
is  slimy ;  its  borders  carpeted  with  mangroves,  bananas,  and 
ebony  trees.  Islands  clothed  with  rich  verdure  give  the  land- 
scape a  very  picturesque  character.  The  usual  transparency  of 
this  basin  is  sometimes  disturbed  by  the  eruptions  of  a  volcano, 
situated  in  one  of  these  islands.  A  subterranean  convulsion  ap- 
pears to  have  separated  Lake  Nicaragua  from  that  of  Leon,  situ- 
ated at  the  north-west. 

Public  attention  has,  within  a  few  years,  been  particularly 
directed  towards  this  lake,  because  it  has  been  thought  that  it 
might  facilitate  the  construction  of  a  canal  across  Central  Ameri- 
ca, and  thus  enable  ships  passing  from  one  sea  to  another  to  dis- 
pense with  the  necessity  of  circumnavigating  Cape  Horn.  Lake 
Nicaragua  has  no  outlet  towards  the  Pacific  Ocean,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  a  tongue  of  land  only  five  leagues  in  breadth ;  all 
its  waters  descend  to  the  Caribbean  Sea  through  the  River  San 
Juan.  But  this  river  forms  a  considerable  number  of  falls,  and 
would  require  a  canal;  moreover  the  lake  is  120  or  130  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  ocean,  and  lacks  depth  at  its  two  extremi- 
ties. These  are  serious,  but  not  insurmountable  obstacles,  and 
the  project  is  not  abandoned. 

Lake  Maracaybo.  —  Lake  Maracaybo,  50  leagues  long,  and 
80  wide,  communicates  with  the  Caribbean  Sea,  but  its  waters 
are  habitually  fresh;  the  tide,  however,  exerts  a  sensible  influence, 
and  the  lake  is  navigable  even  for  vessels  of  considerable  size.  It 
furnishes  much  asphaltum,  which,  mixed  with  tallow,  is  used  for 
tarring  ships.  The  bituminous  vapors  which  hover  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  often  become  inflamed,  especially  in  periods  of 
extreme  heat.  Its  shores  are  so  unhealthy  that  the  Indians, 
instead  of  fixing  their  abode  upon  them,  prefer  to  reside  on  the 
lake  itself.  The  Spaniards  found  there  many  villages  constructed 
on  piles,  (Whence  this  country  received  the  surname  of  Venezuela 
—  Little  Venice.)  The  largest  quantities  of  bitumen  are  accumu- 
lated, principally  in  the  southern  part ;  when  inflamed,  they  aid 
the  pilot  in  recognizing  the  coast  by  night :  thus  they  are  known 
in  the  country  by  the  appellation  of  lanterns  of  the  Maracaybo. 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  509 

Lake  Titicaca.  —  The  great  Lake  Titicaca,  62  leagues  in 
length,  with  angular  and  singular  outlines,  is  one  of  the  most 
elevated  fresh  water  basins  that  is  known,  being  more  than 
12,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean,  higher  than  the  Peak  of 
Teneriffe.  It  contains  many  kinds  of  fish  ;  its  shores  are  culti- 
vated, and  produce  wheat,  barley,  and  potatoes ;  a  numerous 
population  of  Indians  inhabit  the  towns  and  villages  on  its  bor- 
ders. This  lake  receives  the  waters  of  12  or  13  rivers,  but  it 
only  gives  rise  to  the  Desaguadero,  which  disappears  in  a  lagoon, 
or  in  sandy  soils.  In  one  of  the  islands  of  this  lake  the  famous 
Manco  Capac  pretended  to  have  received  his  divine  mission  to 
become  the  lawgiver  of  Peru.  It  was  also  in  the  deep  waters 
of  this  basin  that,  according  to  tradition,  the  Indians,  conquered 
by  the  Spaniards,  buried  most  of  their  treasures,  and  especially 
the  great  golden  chain  of  the  Inca,  Huanca  Capac,  which  was 
750  feet  in  length. 

A  chain  of  lakes  and  lagoons  follows  the  eastern  base  of  the 
Andes,  from  Paraguay  to  the  extremity  of  Patagonia;  but  the 
greater  part,  after  inundating  the  country  to  a  distance,  at  the 
period  of  the  tropical  rains,  dry  up  or  are  metamorphosed  into 
vast  marshes.  Such  is  the  case  with  Lake  Xarayes  (Paraguay) 
and  many  others.  Of  these  lagoons,  some  are  fresh  and  others 
salt,  but  all  are  alike  destitute  of  importance  and  interest. 

Sect.  8.  Rivers  of  America.  Rivers  which  flow 
INTO  THE  Arctic  Ocean.  —  Rivers  are  among  the  treasures 
of  America.  In  no  other  country  do  they  possess  such  an  exten- 
sive course,  or  roll  such  enormous  masses  of  water ;  but  up  to 
the  present  time,  they  have  not  been  made  as  available  as  they 
will  undoubtedly  be  hereafter  ;  the  climate  will,  however,  always 
present  an  almost  insurmountable  obstacle  to  the  navigation  of 
those  which  empty  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  or  Hudson's  Bay. 

The  Mackenzie  River  commences  at  Mount  Brown,  by  Atha- 
hasca  River,  which  flows  into  Lake  Athabasca,  and  receiving 
Peace  River,  enters  Slave  Lake,  issuing  from  which  the  Mac- 
kenzie flows  north-west  as  far  as  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  has  a 
course  of  more  than  2500  miles  ;  this  is  the  counterpart  of  the 
magnificent  rivers  of  Siberia. 

The  Nelson  River,  which  pours  its  waters  into  Hudson's  Bay, 
43  * 


610  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE, 

commences  also  at  the  Rocky  Mountains  by  the  two  Saskatche' 
wan  Rivers,  which,  after  their  reunion,  enter  Lake  Winnipeg,  and 
subsequently  shape  their  course  towards  the  sea,  in  a  north-east- 
erly direction. 

Rivers  which  flow  into  the  Atlantic.  —  The  St.  Law- 
rence is  less  a  river  than  a  long  strait  or  canal  of  fresh  water, 
through  which  flow  the  great  lakes  of  North  America.  From 
Ontario  to  Quebec,  it  is  at  least  3  leagues  in  breadth ;  thence,  as 
far  as  the  sea,  it  averages  from  15  to  20.  In  the  portion  where 
its  course  is  most  limited, — near  Montreal,  for  example, — the  river 
presents  an  extremely  picturesque  aspect ;  villages  and  steeples, 
rocks  and  forests,  are  reflected  in  its  deep-blue  waters,  and  difierent 
points  of  view  every  moment  reveal  themselves.  This  is  the 
great  medium  of  communication  between  the  different  parts  of 
Canada,  and  every  successive  year  it  is  plied  by  an  increasing 
number  of  ships  and  steamboats.  But  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  although  situated  in  the  same  latitude  as  that  of  the 
Seine,  in  France,  is  obstructed  by  ice  during  several  months  of 
the  year,  and  its  navigation  is  forcibly  interrupted. 

The  Mississippi,  which  the  Indians  had  surnamed,  in  their 
poetical  language,  the  "  Father  of  Waters,"  is  one  of  the  largest 
rivers  in  the  world.  It  has  a  course  of  nearly  4500  miles,  and 
of  a  hundred  rivers  which  it  receives,  30  are  navigable  and  covered 
with  numerous  steamboats,  wdiich  facilitate  and  multiply  commu- 
nications in  these  immense  plains,  where  the  scarcity  of  roads 
and  the  insufficiency  of  the  population  would  render  transporta- 
tion by  land  almost  impracticable. 

This  vast  watercourse  has  two  principal  sources,  the  Missis- 
sippi,  which,  rising  among  the  hills  that  separate  the  northern 
plains  from  the  savannas  of  the  Mississippi,  flows  from  north  to 
south  ;  and  the  Missouri,  which  proceeds  from  the  west,  from  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  whose  course  and  volume  of  water  are 
much  more  considerable.  The  former  has  clear  and  transparent 
waters,  and  a  moderate  current.  The  latter,  which  almost  con- 
stantly traverses  sandy  plains,  amid  which  it  makes  innumerable 
windings,  is  encumbered  with  islands  and  sand  banks ;  its  water 
is  muddy,  its  current  rapid,  but  its  navigation  not  difficult  except 
in  the  time  of  the  greatest  drought. 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  611 

Below  the  junction  of  these  two  rivers,  the  Mississippi  presents 
views  of  surpassing  beauty.  Its  bed  is  little  more  than  a  league 
in  breadth,  and  its  miry  waters  form  a  complete  contrast  to  the 
transparent  and  beautiful  waves  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  But  the 
power  of  this  giant  of  the  North  American  rivers  is  manifested 
in  the  rapidity  of  its  current,  in  the  whirlpools  which  it  creates, 
in  its  depth,  which  attains  as  many  as  120  feet,  and  finally  in 
those  colossal  trees,  which  are  drifted  by  the  river,  and  which, 
caught  and  retained  on  the  sand  banks,  damage  and  sometimes 
suddenly  founder  steamboats  which  are  ascending  or  descend- 
ing. A  part  of  these  woods  are  arrested  at  New  Orleans ; 
but  upon  digging  in  the  delta  which  the  Mississippi  forms 
at  its  mouth,  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  many  forest  trees  are 
found,  heaped  one  upon  another  in  successive  layers.  During 
nearly  the  whole  extent  of  its  course,  the  Father  of  Waters  is 
bordered  by  magnificent  forests,  which  are,  however,  beginning 
to  be  superseded,  in  numerous  places,  by  cities  or  cultivated  fields. 
A  little  above  its  delta,  near  New  Orleans,  the  river  is  more 
elevated  than  the  neighboring  lands,  and  retained  only  by  feeble 
dikes,  which  accounts  for  the  fact  that  as  one  sails  upon  it  the 
houses  and  trees  on  the  shore  appear  to  be  half  sunk  beneath  the 
water.  Sometimes,  also,  terrible  disasters  result  from  this  cir- 
cumstance at  the  period  of  the  inundations.  A  bar,  (sand  bank,) 
very  difficult  to  surmount,  obstructs  the  river  at  its  mouth.  Ser- 
pents, mosquitos,  venomous  insects,  and  the  yellow  fever  are  the 
principal  scourges  of  this  country. 

The  most  important  affluents  of  the  river  are,  on  the  left,  the 
Illinois,  which  traverses  immense  prairies,  and  the  Ohio,  (or  Beau- 
tiful River,)  which  resembles  a  canal,  dug  in  a  pleasure  garden,  in 
the  midst  of  superb  forests  of  gigantic  plane,  maple,  tuhp,  and 
magnolia  trees ;  on  the  right,  the  Missouri,  with  its  various 
tributaries,  the  Yellow  Stone,  the  Platte,  the  Kansas,  and  the 
Osage  ;  lower  down,  the  Wiite  River,  the  Arkansas,  and  the  Red 
River  issue  from  the  Eocky  Mountains,  and  swell  the  Mississippi 
with  their  muddy  but  salubrious  waters. 

The  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  after  traversing  New  Mexico, 
empties  into  the  Mexican  Gulf.  In  the  upper  part,  its  naviga- 
tion is  impeded  in  summer  by  the  want  of  water,  and  in  the  lower 
portion  by  sand  banks. 


512  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

The  Orinoco,  in  South  America,  is  a  large  river,  which  rises 
in  the  chain  of  the  mountains  of  Guiana,  flows  first  south,  then 
west,  and  north,  and  finally  east,  and  after  a  course  of  more  than 
500  leagues,  interrupted  by  many  rapids  and  cataracts,  it  emp- 
ties into  the  Atlantic  by  numerous  mouths,  which  form  a  very 
extensive  delta.  The  aspect  of  the  Orinoco  is  magnificent.  Its 
banks  are  almost  every  where  covered  with  impenetrable  forests, 
and  majestic  trees,  which  are  linked  together  by  the  heyuco,  a 
gigantic  climbing  plant,  as  large  as  a  cable ;  dead  trees,  of  cen- 
tennial growth,  are  sustained  upright  by  these  immense  plants, 
which  are  often  confounded  with  the  enormous  water  snakes  that 
are  constantly  lurking  in  these  marshes.  Among  the  branches 
gambol  monkeys  of  every  species ;  through  the  underwood  may 
be  descried  openings,  made  by  the  animals  which  frequent  the 
river  side  to  quench  their  thirst  or  pursue  their  prey  —  wild  oxen 
and  horses,  jaguars,  stags,  &c.  Alligators  stretch  themselves  in 
the  sun,  and  sleep  motionless  on  the  shore.  These  amphibious 
monsters  acquire  enormous  dimensions  in  these  rivers:  if  sur- 
prised on  land  they  suffer  themselves  to  be  killed  almost  unresist- 
ingly ;  they  are  chiefly  to  be  dreaded  at  the  period  of  the  inun- 
dations, the  more  so,  that  when  they  have  once  tasted  human 
flesh  they  become  ravenous  for  it,  and  destruction  then  awaits 
the  solitary  bathers,  or  women  who  come  thither  to  draw  water. 
These  dangerous  animals  devour  great  numbers  of  calves  and 
colts,  when  the  river,  suddenly  rising,  rapidly  invades  the  vast 
llanos  covered  with  wild  cattle.  Besides  these  alligators,  the 
Orinoco  and  its  aflluents  nourish  a  small  fish,  of  an  orange-yellow 
color,  only  from  three  to  five  inches  long,  but  so  fond  of  human 
blood,  that  the  name  of  carib  has  been  bestowed  upon  it.  If  one 
is  wounded  by  them,  ever  so  slightly,  hundreds  flock  to  the  spot, 
allured  by  the  odor  of  the  blood,  and  it  becomes  difficult  for  him 
to  extricate  himself  from  their  sharp  fangs.  In  a  hot  climate, 
where  river  bathing  is  a  daily  necessity,  the  existence  of  such  a 
fish  is  an  actual  scourge  ;  thus  the  people  dread  it  even  more 
than  they  do  the  alligator.  The  great  gymnoti,  or  electrical  eels, 
also  abound  in  these  waters.  In  order  to  procure  them,  num- 
bers of  wild  horses  are  chased  from  the  savanna  into  the  marshes 
where   they  exist,  upon  which  animals  these  fish,  resembling 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  513 

aquatic  snakes,  discharge  their  fluid  by  repeated  shocks.  Many 
of  the  horses,  exhausted,  panting,  and  driven  into  the  interior  of 
the  marshes,  from  which  they  are  attempting  to  escape,  sink  un- 
der the  violence  of  these  shocks ;  but  after  a  certain  time,  the 


Electrical  Eel. 

gymnoti,  whose  electrical  power  becomes  exhausted,  suffer  them- 
selves to  be  taken  by  means  of  small  harpoons,  attached  to  long 
lines,  and  are  afterwards  sold  to  figure  in  menageries,  where  some 
are  exliibited  of  more  than  five  feet  and  a  half  in  length,  and 
weighing  as  many  as  15  pounds.  The  principal  affluents  of  the 
Orinoco  are  the  Caroni  on  the  right,  the  Meta  and  the  Apure  on 
the  left. 

The  Maranon  or  Amazon  River,  so  called  on  account  of  the 
imaginary  population  of  female  warriors  whom  the  early  discov- 
erers fancied  they  saw  upon  its  borders,  is  unquestionably  the 
largest  river  the  world.  It  rises  in  the  Andes  of  Peru,  at  12,000 
feet  above  the  sea,  flows  north,  and  descends  rapidly  as  far  as  the 
narrow  pass  of  Manseriche,  where  it  enters  the  plain,  and  begins 
to  take  an  easterly  course.  At  500  leagues  from  the  sea,  the 
Amazon  is  already  nearly  a  league  in  breadth ;  lower,  the  river, 
whose  depth  attains  as  many  as  300  feet,  forms  as  it  were  a  sea 
of  fresh  water,  which  has  its  tempests,  its  trade  winds,  and  which 
receives  from  the  ocean  the  impetus  of  the  tide.  After  a  course 
of  4000  miles,  it  flows  into  the  Atlantic  by  two  mouths,  one  of 
which  is  20  leagues  in  breadth,  and  the  other  8.  The  power  of 
this  immense  body  of  water  is  such,  that  it  repels  the  water  of 
the  sea,  and  flows  without  mingling  with  the  latter  for  a  space  of 
from  60  to  80  leagues.     The  Maranon  annually  overflows,  cover- 


514  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

ing  a  space  of  fifty  leagues  in  breadth.  It  contains  a  vast  number 
of  islands.  A  regular  line  of  steamboats  has  recently  been 
organized  on  this  beautiful  river,  and  thus  the  products  of  the 
Andes  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  may  be  brought  into  communication 
with  other  parts  of  the  world  without  being  obliged  to  encounter 
the  perils  presented  by  the  passage  of  Cape  Horn. 

A  curious  phenomenon  of  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  is  the 
hore^  which  occurs  especially  during  the  two  days  before  and  two 
days  after  full  moon,  the  time  of  the  highest  tides.  Three  or 
four  enormous  waves,  of  from  10  to  20  feet  in  height,  rush  into 
the  river  with  irresistible  force,  and  which  precipitate  themselves 
along  the  shore,  sweeping  away  every  thing  which  opposes  their 
fury.  The  tide,  instead  of  requiring  six  hours  for  its  increase, 
attains  its  greatest  height  in  a  few  moments.  The  roaring  of  the 
bore  is  heard  at  nearly  two  leagues  distance.  This  is  the  har  of 
the  Gironde  on  a  larger  scale. 

An  occupation  peculiar  to  the  borderers  of  this  river  is  the 
manufacture  of  the  butter,  or,  more  strictly  speaking,  the  oil  of  the 
tortoise.  At  the  time  of  the  laying,  these  amphibia  arrive  by 
thousands  upon  certain  sandy  shores,  for  the  purpose  of  deposit- 
ing their  eggs.  The  mere  collision  of  their  shells,  as  they  clash 
on  the  banks,  creates  a  report  which  may  be  heard  at  a  distance. 
The  laying  commences  at  sunset  and  terminates  at  dawn.  Each 
tortoise,  after  having  deposited  60  eggs  at  least,  and  140  at  most, 
retreats,  and  the  shore  is  finally  deserted.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
vicinity  then  assemble  and  collect  them,  under  the  inspection  of 
government  agents,  authorized  to  levy  slight  taxes  upon  them. 
This  being  done,  the  eggs  thus  collected  are  thrown  into  a  boat, 
which  has  previously  been  carefully  cleansed ;  there  they  are 
crushed,  both  under  foot  and  with  sticks.  From  them  escapes  a 
yellow  liquid,  mixed  with  foam,  to  which  is  added  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  water,  after  which  the  mixture  is  left  for  a  whole  day, 
exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  heat  brings  to  the  surface 
the  oily  portion  of  the  eggs,  which  is  then  removed  by  means  of 
ladles,  placed  In  kettles,  and  subjected  to  a  slow  fire.  This  spe- 
cies of  fat  gradually  clarifies,  and  acquires  the  consistency  and 
color  of  melted  butter.  Thus  this  substance,  usually  put  up  in 
large  earthen  pots  containing  from  40  to  60  pounds,  is  known  in 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  515 

commerce  under  the  name  of  tortoise  butter.  It  is  used  for  the 
seasoning  of  dishes,  or  (when  of  inferior  quality)  for  the  light- 
ing of  houses ;  but  it  always  preserves  a  certain  rancid,  disagree- 
able odor. 

The  principal  affluents  of  the  Amazon  are,  on  the  right,  the 
Ucayale  and  the  Purus,  proceeding  from  the  Andes  of  Upper 
Peru,  the  Madeira^  (or  River  of  the  Woods,)  the  Tapajos,  the 
Xingii,  and  the  Tocantins,  or  Para,  (which  receives  the  Araguay,) 
all  of  which  rivers  descend  from  the  mountains  of  Brazil ;  on 
the  left,  the  Japura  and  the  Rio  Negro  ;  the  latter  is  remarkable 
for  the  natural  canal  which  has  established  itself  between  this 
river  and  the  Cassiquiare,  one  of  the  affluents  of  the  Orinoco,  a 
communication  which  might  render  immense  services  to  less  scat- 
tered and  more  industrious  populations. 

The  Rio  de  la  Plata,  or  Argentine  River,  a  name  which  this 
river  bears  only  at  its  mouth,  traverses  the  pampas  from  north  to 
south,  and  empties  into  the  Atlantic  after  a  course  of  800  leagues. 
It  is  composed,  properly  speaking,  of  three  great  rivers  :  1.  The 
Paraguay,  in  the  centre,  issuing  from  the  Campos  Parecis,  and 
which  forms,  during  the  rainy  season,  the  temporary  Lake  of 
Xarayes ;  2.  The  Pilcomayo,  which  descends  from  Upper  Peru  ; 
3.  The  Parana,  which  rises  at  the  north-east,  among  the  moun- 
tains of  Brazil.  After  the  junction  of  these  three  principal 
branches,  the  river  also  receives  from  the  Andes  the  Rio  Salado, 
and  at  its  mouth,  in  the  Bay  of  La  Plata,  the  Uruguay,  which 
issues  from  the  southern  extremity  of  the  mountains  of  Brazil. 

All  these  rivers  are  replete  with  islands,  which  produce  great 
numbers  of  different  animals :  such  are  the  coypon,  (myopotame,) 
a  species  of  large  water  rat,  of  a  brown  color,  w^hose  coat  some- 
what resembles  that  of  the  beaver,  and  has  also  been  employed 
in  the  hat  trade ;  and  the  cabrai,  one  of  the  largest  rodents 
known,  (three  feet  in  length  and  one  and  a  half  in  height,)  with 
stiff  and  smooth  hair,  and  thick-set  form,  and  which  swims  with 
perfect  ease  by  means  of  the  membranes  which  unite  its  claws ; 
its  flesh  is  esteemed  an  excellent  article  of  food ;  when  caught 
young,  it  is  susceptible  of  being  tamed.  Other  animals  also  — 
jaguars,  cougars,  caymans,  squirrels,  and  monkeys,  inhabit  these 
islands,  and  usually  present  themselves  to  the  view  of  those  who 


516  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

pass  their  borders.  Sometimes,  during  the  sudden  risings  of  the 
Parana,  considerable  portions  of  the  islands  become  detached,  and 
float  along  the  shore.  The  intertexture,  formed  by  the  roots  of 
the  vegetables  which  grow  upon  them,  prevents  them  from  crum- 
bling, and  these  camlets  may  be  seen  descending  with  the  current 
for  many  leagues.  The  animals  which  chance  to  be  upon  them 
at  the  time  of  the  catastrophe  are  carried  away  with  the  soil 
that  had  served  them  for  an  asylum,  and  the  terror  which  they 
experience  usually  renders  them  motionless.  It  is  related  that  a 
camlet,  a  few  years  ago,  transported  three  jaguars  to  the  city  of 
Montevideo ;  entering  which  at  daybreak,  they  suddenly  sprang 
upon  a  liquor  merchant  in  the  act  of  opening  his  shop.  A  great 
number  of  persons  were  wounded  before  these  three  animals  could 
be  killed. 

Rivers  which  Flow  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  —  The 
Columbia  River  is  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  rivers  emptying 
into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  rises  in  British  America,  on  the  west 
slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  flows  south  and  west  into  the 
ocean.  This  river,  which  can  be  ascended  for  140  miles  from 
its  mouth  by  vessels  of  considerable  size,  is  separated  from 
the  sea  by  a  dangerous  sand  bar,  at  certain  seasons  even  in- 
surmountable ;  elsewhere  iTipids  and  falls  obstruct  navigation 
in  the  upper  part,  for  which  reason  this  river,  although  very 
beautiful,  and  from  one  to  five  miles  broad,  cannot  render 
such  important  services  as  would  at  first  be  supposed.  Its 
banks,  however,  are  richly  wooded  with  pines  and  other  gigantic 
trees,  and  its  waters  contain  a  great  abundance  of  fish,  and  espe- 
cially salmon. 

The  rivers  of  California,  the  Sacramento,  the  San  Joaquin^ 
though  comparatively  small  streams,  have  become  celebrated 
from  the  extensive  and  rich  gold  region  through  which  they 
flow. 

Sect.  9.  Principal  Islands  of  America.  Arctic 
Lands.  —  The  portion  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  which  washes  the 
northern  coasts  of  America  forms  a  vast  archipelago  of  islands, 
still  imperfectly  known,  discovered  by  the  bold  navigators  who, 
from  the  commencement  of  the  16th  century,  had,  until  the  last 
year,  vainly  sought  a  northern  passage  conducting  from  the  At- 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA  517 

lantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  This  archipelago  is  composed 
of  numerous  bodies  of  land,  generally  of  little  elevation,  separated 
from  each  other  by  narrow  straits,  and  covered  the  greater  part 
of  the  year  with  snow  and  ice,  the  soil,  at  most,  only  thawing  to' 
a  foot's  depth  during  the  summer. 

The  climate  of  these  countries  is  uncommonly  cold.  However, 
the  summers,  which  are  very  short,  are  sometimes  of  such  intense 
heat  as  to  melt  the  tar  on  the  sides  of  ships,  and  dissolve  and 
disperse  the  immense  fields  of  marine  ice  which  the  winds  drive 
hither  and  thither,  and  which,  becoming  accumulated  in  the  straits 
or  bays,  menace  vessels  with  the  most  shocking  disasters.  At 
this  period,  the  reflection  of  the  sun's  rays  upon  the  snow,  fre- 
quently occasions  severe  diseases  of  the  eyes.  Travellers,  who 
visit  these  shores,  are  sometimes  even  smitten  with  blindness. 
In  hot  summers  the  ice  breaks  up  in  the  month  of  June,  and  does 
not  form  again  until  towards  the  end  of  August.  At  other  times 
it  does  not  disperse  during  the  whole  year,  and  the  vessels  of  cer- 
tain navigators  have  thus  been  blockaded  for  two  or  three  years 
in  succession.  The  cold  of  the  winter  is  such  that  water  placed 
in  bottles,  borne  on  the  bodies  of  sailors,  travelling  on  foot,  freezes 
almost  immediately ;  the  fat  of  pork  becomes  brittle ;  the  faces 
and  limbs  of  individuals  are  frequently  frozen.  Whenever  any 
food  is  cooked  on  board  ships,  or  in  the  camp  huts,  constructed 
of  blocks  of  ice,  the  vapor  which  escapes  from  it  immediately 
descends  in  the  form  of  snow,  so  fine  that  it  penetrates  all  one's 
clothing,  furs  included.  The  sun  is  invisible  during  three  or  four 
months  ;  but  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  during  this  protracted 
night,  uninterrupted  darkness  envelops  the  earth.  As  the  star 
of  day  descends  but  little  more  than  18  degrees  below  the  hori- 
zon, the  arctic  regions  constantly  enjoy  the  benefit  of  a  twilight 
whose  brightness  the  ice  and  snow  singularly  augment ;  so  that, 
independently  of  the  auroras  boreales,  which  are  very  frequent, 
it  is  possible,  even  in  the  middle  of  winter,  to  read  the  finest 
writing  without  difficulty  at  midday,  as  tested  by  the  experiment 
of  Captain  Parry. 

Vegetables  are  naturally  the  poorest  feature  of  these  countries. 
Little  has  been  found  in  the  most  northern  of  these  islands  except 
a  species  of  dwarf  willow,  (tetragona  andromeda,)  with  stalks 
44 


518  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

of  the  size  of  a  pipe  stem,  which  usually  creep  on  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  and  serve  as  food  for  the  reindeer  or  fuel  for  navigators ; 
a  little  turf,  of  a  very  beautiful  green,  during  the  few  weeks  of 
summer ;  various  small  plants,  bearing  very  pretty  flowers ; 
cochlearia,  and  different  species  of  sorrels,  (precious  antidotes 
against  the  scurvy  ;)  mosses  and  lichens,  which  carpet  the  rocks  ; 
and  the  red  snow,  (or  protococcus  nivalis,)  a  microscopic  plant, 
which  grows  in  the  midst  of  the  snow,  and  makes  it  appear  of 
the  color  of  blood. 

The  animals  are,  on  the  contrary,  extremely  numerous.  Be- 
sides those  which  we  have  already  named,  in  connection  with  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  white  bears,  morses,  seals,  narwhals,  whales,  &c., 
may  be  mentioned  the  reindeer,  deer,  musk  oxen,  white  hares, 
lemmings,  foxes,  and  gluttons,  which  in  winter  emigrate  to  the 
continent  of  America  in  search  of  a  milder  climate,  and  return 
in  spring  to  these  islands,  before  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice  has 
separated  them  from  one  another.  Polar  navigators  have  fre- 
quently encountered  troops  of  reindeer,  deer,  musk  oxen,  or  hares, 
which,  unaccustomed  to  the  sight  of  man,  made  no  attempt  at 
flight;  whereas  the  white  bears  always  instinctively  kept  at  a 
distance.  Geese  and  wild  ducks,  plover,  sandpipers,  and  vari- 
ous other  aquatic  birds,  flock  in  numerous  bands  to  deposit  their 
eggs  on  the  rocks  of  the  northern  islands.  During  a  few  weeks 
all  is  life  and  animation  in  the  air  as  well  as  in  the  water. 

There  is  no  population.  Esquimaux,  from  the  American  con- 
tinent, frequent  even  these  islands  in  pursuit  of  game,  but  only 
establish  themselves  there  temporarily.  Europeans  and  Ameri- 
cans, who  have  been  attracted  into  these  cold  countries,  both  by 
the  desire  of  finding  the  unfortunate  navigator  Sir  John  Franklin, 
who  disappeared  nine  years  ago  amid  the  ice,  and  by  the  hope 
of  discovering  the  famous  north-west  passage,  will  now  probably 
abandon  these  voyages,  since  Captain  McClure,  who  in  the  year 
1854,  ascertained  the  existence  of  such  a  passage,  has  demon- 
strated its  inutility  to  ordinary  navigation  and  the  necessities  of 
commerce. 

Greenland.  —  The  beautiful  name  of  Greenland,  which  w^as 
given  to  the  large  island  situated  at  the  north-east  of  America 
by  the  first  Icelandic  navigators,  who  discovered  it  in  the  10th 


THE  CONTINENT   OF  AMERICA.  519 

century,  seems  to  have  been  a  name  bestowed  in  derision  upon 
icy  countries,  almost  every  where  sterile,  or  at  least  very  ill 
endowed  in  respect  to  vegetation.  Greenland  terminates  at  the 
south  in  Cape  Farewell.  A  chain  of  steep  mountains,  covered 
with  ice  and  eternal  snows,  somewhat  shelters  the  western  coast, 
where  alone  Europeans  have  been  able  to  locate  themselves.  The 
eastern  coast,  (or  old  Greenland,)  where  Scandinavian  colonies 
were  first  established,  of  whom  there  no  longer  exist  any  traces, 
is  now  abandoned  and  almost  deserted.  Its  northern  boundary 
is  comparatively  unknown.  "  Dr.  Kane,  in  his  recent  expedition 
to  the  arctic  regions,  passed  through  Smith's  Sound,  and  ex- 
plored the  northern  coast  of  Greenland,  as  far  as  67°  west  lon- 
gitude. He  reports  the  existence  of  an  open  sea  north  of  the 
parallel  of  82°.  To  reach  it,  his  party  crossed  a  barrier  of  ice 
80  or  100  miles  broad.  Before  gaining  this  open  water,  he  found 
the  thermometer  to  show  the  extreme  temperature  of  -60°. 
Passing  this  ice-bound  region  by  travelling  north,  he  stood  on  the 
shores  of  an  iceless  sea,  extending  in  an  unbroken  sheet  of  water 
as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach  towards  the  pole.  Its  waves  were 
dashing  on  the  beach  with  the  swell  of  a  boundless  ocean.  Seals 
were  sporting  and  water  fowl  feeding  in  this  open  sea.  The 
temperature  of  its  waters  was  only  36°."  * 

The  climate^  every  where  very  cold,  varies  a  little,  however, 
according  to  the  latitude,  for  in  the  southern  part  the  longest 
night  does  not  exceed  18^  hours.  The  winter  lasts  from  eight 
to  ten  months ;  the  summer  is  very  short,  but  the  heat  sometimes 
rises  as  high  as  24  degrees  ;  the  inhabitants  are  then  tormented 
by  mosquitos,  and  the  sky  is  obscured  by  fogs. 

Minerals.  —  The  mountains  contain  rich  copper  bearings,  from 
which  it  is  very  difficult  to  derive  any  benefit.  A  vast  mine  of 
coal  has  been  discovered  in  the  Island  of  Disco,  at  the  north-west. 

The  vegetation  is  necessarily  very  poor.  Small  trees,  or 
stunted  shrubs,  are,  however,  met  with,  such  as  willows,  alders, 
puny  birches,  myrtles,  (whose  sour  berries  are  eaten  by  the  na- 
tives,) sorrel,  cochlearia,  and  excellent  grass  in  the  most  favored 
portions.     In  the  southern  districts,  the  Europeans  cultivate  cab- 

*  Maury's  "  Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea," 


620 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 


bages,  radishes,  celery,  carrots,  potatoes,  a  little  barley,  and  oats  ; 
but  all  these  cultivations  require  much  care,  and  often  do  not 
succeed  at  all,  especially  the  two  latter. 

The  most  common  animals  are  wild  reindeer,  white  bears,  red 
and  black  foxes,  great  white  hares,  whose  flesh  is  excellent,  and 
large  dogs,  which  are  employed  for  drawing"  sledges.  The  coasts 
are  visited  by  immense  quantities  of  aquatic  birds,  among  which 
should  be  specified  the  eider  duck.  The  seas  abound  in  fish,  and 
especially  in  seals,  which  are  always  the  principal  resource  of  the 
natives.  The  flesh  serves  to  nourish  them ;  the  skin  furnishes  them 
with  clothing,  and  with  coverings  for  their  summer  tents,  and  is 
also  used  in  the  construction  of  their  boats  ;  tlie  sinews  are  con- 


Greenlander. 


verted  into  thread  by  the  women  ;  the  bladders  serve  for  bottles ; 
and  the  fat  takes  the  place  of  butter,  or  is  used  for  lighting  their 
liabitations ;  so  that  for  a  long  time  the  Greenlanders  could  not 
comprehend  how  people  could  exist  without  sea  calves. 

Population.  —  These  natives  are  Esquimaux  of  small  stature, 
swarthy  complexion,  and  a  mikl,  peaceable,  and  honest  character. 
In  winter  they  inhabit  filthy  mud  huts,  lighted  by  a  large  lamp, 
and  slightly  warmed.  In  summer  they  dwell  under  tents,  made 
of  the  skins  of  seals.  They  often  experience  long  and  severe 
famines;  for  unfortunately  the  Esquimaux  is  destitute  of  foresight, 
and  never  dreams  of  making  provision  for  the  future  in  times  of 
plenty.     Owing  to  the  admirable  self-devotion  of  the  Moravian 


\ 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  521 

missionaries,  who  for  more  than  a  century  have  subjected  them- 
selves to  a  life  of  privation  and  suffering  among  the  natives,  in 
order  to  impart  to  them  the  knowledge  of  the  gospel,  and  intro- 
duce among  them  the  benefits  of  civilization,  the  majority  of  the 
Greenlanders  have  now  become  Christians.  They  form  regularly 
organized  churches,  provided  with  seminaries  and  schools,  in  the 
midst  of  which  reigns  an  evangelical  spirit,  which  produces  a  re- 
markable missionary  activity.  Those  Greenlanders  who  are  still 
pagans  entertain  a  vague  belief  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
and  in  a  Supreme  Being ;  but  their  natural  passions  and  their 
superstition  are  unworthily  wrought  upon  by  their  priests,  who 
are  at  the  same  time  sorcerers  and  physicians.  The  pagans 
chiefly  inhabit  the  remote  countries  of  the  interior,  and  of  the  east- 
ern coast,  where  the  authority  of  Denmark  has  never  extended. 

Neavfoundland  and  the  Neighboring  Islands.  —  The 
great  Island  of  Newfoundland  is  situated  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence ;  the  Strait  of  Bellisle  separates  it  from 
Labrador.  The  interior  is  filled  with  mountains,  forests,  and 
marshy  valleys,  and  its  excessively  indented  coasts  offer  an  excel- 
lent shelter  to  the  numerous  ships  which  come  thither  to  prepare 
the  cod,  caught  in  abundance  in  the  neighboring  seas. 

The  climate  is  healthy,  but  not  very  agreeable  ;  it  is  less  cold 
than  in  Canada,  but  thick  fogs  are  very  frequent,  and  greatly 
impede  navigation. 

The  minerals  are  iron,  copper,  and  a  considerable  quantity 
of  coal. 

The  vegetables  are  firs,  birches,  and  berry-bearing  shrubs ;  pota- 
toes, a  little  grain,  and  some  legumes  are  cultivated,  but  the 
severe  winters  and  continual  fogs  are  great  obstacles  to  the  de- 
velopment of  agriculture. 

The  animals  are  stags,  elks,  bears,  foxes,  hares,  otters,  and 
many  aquatic  birds,  which  build  their  nests  among  the  rocks  of 
the  shore.  The  inhabitants  raise  horses,  horned  cattle,  sheep,  and 
especially  those  famous  Newfoundland  dogs,  whose  strength,  do- 
cility, attachment  to  their  master,  passion  for  the  water,  and  above 
all,  the  facility  in  swimming  which  is  afforded  them  by  the  mem- 
brane placed  between  the  claws  of  their  feet,  render  them  ex- 
tremely useful  in  cases  of  shipwreck,  or  disasters  at  sea. 
44* 


622 


THE  GEOGRAPHY   OF  NATURE. 


The  population  now  consists  only  of  English  colonists,  fisher- 
men, or  permanent  residents  ;  within  a  certain  number  of  years, 
the  last  remnants  of  the  wild  Indians  of  the  interior  of  the  island 
have  completely  disappeared. 

West  of  Newfoundland,  the  three  small  islands  of  St.  Pierre, 
Miquelon,  and  Little  Miquelon,  which  belong  to  France,  serve  as 
places  of  resort  for  the  preparation  of  the  cod.     Still  farther  west, 


Neicfoimdlaiid  Dog. 

and  at  the  mouth  of  the  River  St.  Lawrence,  is  found  the  great 
English  Island  of  Anticosti,  abounding  in  forests  and  game  ;  south 
of  Newfoundland,  and  near  the  coasts  of  Nova  Scotia,  lie  the  two 
large  English  Islands  of  aS'^.  John  or  Prince  Edward,  of  a  mild 
climate,  and  of  a  fertile  and  smiling  aspect,  and  farther  east  i\\Q 
Island  of  Cape  Breton,  important  on  account  of  its  fisheries  and 
its  inexhaustible  mines  of  coal. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA.  523 

The  Bermudas.  —  This  archipelago,  situated  at  about  200 
leagues  east  of  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  is  composed  of 
nearly  400  islands,  or  islets,  only  eight  of  which  are  inhabited. 
They  contain  little  vegetable  earth,  and  only  cistern  water. 
Maize,  tobacco,  a  little  cotton,  and  some  vegetables  are  cultivated. 
But  the  principal  wealth  of  these  islands  consists  in  a  species  of 
cedar,  which  attains  a  height  of  from  40  to  50  feet,  and  whose 
wood,  at  once  light  and  solid,  is  equally  adapted  to  the  construc- 
tion of  vessels  and  the  manufacture  of  pencils.  The  fortunes  of 
individuals  are  estimated  by  the  number  of  cedars  wiiich  they 
possess.  These  islands,  of  inconsiderable  importance,  are  peo- 
pled by  English  colonists  and  some  thousands  of  negroes. 

LucAYOS,  OR  Bahama  Islands.  —  These  islands,  generally 
of  narrow  and  elongated  form,  are  situated  south-east  of  Florida, 
from  which  they  are  separated  by  the  New  Bahama  Channel  and 
Florida  Pass ;  they  are  islands  of  some  celebrity,  because  this 
was  the  first  portion  of  America  which  Christopher  Columbus 
discovered,  touching  on  the  12th  of  October,  1492,  at  one  of  them 
called  Guanahani,  now  San  Salvador,  Of  the  group  of  about 
500,  12  only  are  inhabited,  and  almost  all  are  surrounded  by 
reefs.  They  are  generally  flat,  of  little  fertility,  possessing  few 
springs,  and  exposed  to  suffocating  heat  and  violent  winds.  The 
cultivation  of  cotton,  the  exploration  of  salt  marshes,  and  the 
tortoise  fishery,  constitute  the  principal  occupation  of  more  than 
20,000  English  colonists  established  in  this  archipelago. 

The  Greater  Antilles.  —  The  Island  of  Cuba,  the  most 
western,  the  largest,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  beautiful  of 
the  Antilles,  has  somewhat  the  form  of  a  bow.  It  is  traversed 
from  east  to  west  by  a  chain  of  mountains  of  considerable  height, 
covered  with  magnificent  forests.  Many  rocks,  islets,  or  sand 
banks  render  the  approach  to  this  country  dangerous.  The  cli- 
mate, although  very  hot,  is,  however,  more  agreeable  than  in  the 
rest  of  the  Antilles ;  the  yellow  fever  often  causes  terrible  rav- 
ages during  the  rainy  season,  (June,  July,  and  August.)  The 
precious  minerals  which  the  mountains  contain  are  no  longer 
explored ;  but  the  soil  is  of  remarkable  fertility,  and  commonly 
yields  two  crops  a  year.  The  roads  are  bordered  with  palm  and 
cocoa  nut  trees ;  the  hedges  are  composed  of  torch  thistles  and 


524 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


other  species  of  cactus,  which  present  the  form  of  candelabras. 
Among  the  alimentary  plants  which  abound  in  this  island  are 
the  ignames  and  the  pineapple.  The  former  produces  tubercles 
somewhat  similar  to  those  of  the  potato  ;  after  being  cooked,  they 
afford  a  very  wholesome  and  agreeable  nutriment,  which  consti- 
tutes the  principal  food  of  the  inhabitants  of  many  of  the  countries 
of  Southern  Asia.  The  tubercles  of  the  most  widely  diffused 
but  not  the  best  species  acquire  two  or  three  feet  in  length,  and 
often  weigh  from  30  to  40  pounds ;  their  form  is  generally  ob- 
long, and  their  flesh  sometimes  whitish,  and  sometimes  of  a  red- 
dish hue. 

The  pineapple  (anana,)  is  a  plant  with  long,  stiff,  and  pointed 
leaves,  folded  in  groves,  and  with  sharp,  denticulated  edges ;  from 


Pineapple. 


the  centre  of  these  leaves  rises  a  rounded  stalk,  about  two  feet  in 
height,  and  as  large  as  tlie  tliumb,  which  produces,  first  a  cluster 
pf  bluish  flowers,  soon  succeeded  by  a  solitary  fruit,  very  similar 


THE  CONTINENT  OP   AMERICA.  525 

in  form  to  a  fir  cone,  but  which  attains  nearly  the  size  of  the  two 
fists.  This  fruit,  of  a  golden  yellow,  combines  the  flavor  and  the 
perfume  of  many  of  the  most  exquisite  fruits  —  strawberries, 
raspberries,  melons,  apricots,  &c.  It  has  been  pronounced  the 
Mng  of  fruits,  but  it  only  merits  this  reputation  in  the  countries 
where  it  can  grow  in  the  open  air  ;  this  degree  of  excellence  has 
not  been  attained  by  those  which  have  been  cultivated  in  Euro- 
pean hothouses,  within  a  hundred  years,  since  the  period  when 
Louis  XV.  and  his  court  regaled  themselves  upon  the  first  two 
ananas  which  were  brought  to  maturity  in  France.  The  top  of 
this  fruit  is  garnished  with  a  tuft  of  thorny  leaves,  which,  being 
planted  in  the  earth,  sprout  and  produce  a  new  plant. 

One  of  the  principal  articles  of  cultivation  is  that  of  tobacco,  of 
which  the  famous  Havana  cigars  are  prepared,  which  are  reputed 
the  best  in  the  world.  The  manufacture  of  sugar  equals  the 
enormous  amount  of  300,000  tons  a  year,  almost  as  much  as  is 
produced  by  all  the  English  possessions  united.  Next  rank  other 
less  important  articles  —  coffee,  cacao,  manioc,  maize,  indigo,  &c. 
This  colony,  become  exceedingly  prosperous  within  twenty  years, 
has  proved  a  very  important  acquisition  to  Spain.  Slavery  has 
been  maintained  there,  and  the  negroes  are  more  numerous  than 
the  whites.     Catholicism  is  the  religion  of  the  whole  country. 

The  Island  of  Hayti,  anciently  St.  Domingo,  sometimes  sur- 
named  Queen  of  the  Antilles,  is  a  beautiful  country,  threaded  by 
many  wooded  chains,  and  intersected  by  valleys  and  smiling 
plains,  which  are  watered  by  numerous  rivers.  The  climate  is 
very  salubrious  on  the  heights,  but  an  oppressive  heat,  combined 
with  the  natural  humidity  of  the  country,  gives  rise  in  the  plains 
to  dangerous  maladies,  especially  fatal  to  Europeans.  The  moun- 
tains contain  some  precious  metals,  but  the  principal  wealth  of 
the  country  consists  in  the  extraordinary  fertility  of  the  soil. 
When  St.  Domingo  w^as  a  colony  of  France,  this  island  produced 
an  enormous  quantity  of  coffee  and  sugar.  But  since  the  negroes 
(long  enslaved)  emancipated  themselves  (1791)  from  the  yoke 
of  their  masters  by  massacres,  and  constituted  themselves  an  in- 
dependent state,  in  which  men  of  color  alone  have  the  privilege 
of  establishing  themselves  and  holding  possessions,  the  colonial 
commodities  have  almost  ceased  to  be  cultivated,  and  sugar  is 


^£6  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

now  imported  into  this  island,  whicli  formerly  furnished  it  to  all 
Europe.  The  manners  and  language  of  this  negro  empire  are, 
however,  those  of  France ;  schools  and  civilization  are  making 
some  progress ;  Catholicism  is  the  religion  of  the  state,  but  all 
others  are  tolerated. 

The  Island  of  Porto  Rico,  the  smallest  of  the  Greater  Antilles, 
is  situated  east  of  Hayti.  It  is  traversed  from  east  to  west  by  a 
chain  of  mountains  covered  with  forests,  whence  descend  numer- 
ous rivers,  forming  picturesque  cascades.  Few  countries  are 
more  beautiful  and  agi-eeable ;  the  climate,  although  hot,  is  not 
insalubrious ;  the  soil  of  the  plains  is  black,  rich,  and  fertile, 
producing  quantities  of  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  rice,  maize,  tobacco, 
(almost  as  renowned  as  that  of  Cuba,)  bananas,  manioc,  and  sweet 
potatoes.  The  fields  nourish  multitudes  of  cattle,  whose  flesh 
is  of  an  exquisite  flavor  ;  the  mules  of  Porto  Rico  are  also  held 
in  high  estimation.  This  island  is  infested  by  no  dangerous 
animals  —  neither  ferocious  beasts,  venomous  reptiles,  nor  nox- 
ious insects.  The  only  formidable  scourges  are  the  hurricanes. 
The  Island  of  Porto  Rico  belongs  to  Spain,  and  has,  like  Cuba, 
continued  to  maintain  slavery,  but  is  far  less  rich  and  prosperous. 

Jamaica,  south  of  Cuba,  is  the  principal  of  the  English  posses- 
sions among  the  Antilles.  The  Blue  Mountains,  which  traverse 
it  throughout  its  whole  length,  are  quite  elevated,  and  covered 
with  forests,  in  which  flourish  lemon  trees,  iron  wood,  maliogany, 
and  campeachy  wood,  and  palm  trees  of  various  species.  The 
climate  is  temperate  only  in  the  mountains  ;  elsewhere  it  is  veiy 
hot,  and  not  very  healthy  for  foreigners.  The  soil,  which  is  care- 
fully cultivated,  yields  much  sugar,  (of  -which  the  celebrated 
Jamaica  rum  is  manufactured,)  coffee,  cacao,  indigo,  and  cotton. 
Ginger  grows  wild  on  most  of  the  hills  of  little  elevation.  The 
Jamaica  pepper,  or  English  pimento,  is  a  tree  which  bears  a  fruit 
in  the  form  of  small  globular  berries  ;  this  fruit,  after  being  dried 
a  few  days  in  the  sun,  is  exported.  Its  pungent  and  aromatic 
flavor,  partaking  at  once  of  the  nature  of  cinnamon,  cloves,  and 
nutmeg,  (whence  the  surname  of  allspice,)  renders  it  an  excellent 
seasoning  in  various  branches  of  cookery.  Pineapples,  bananas, 
melons,  oranges,  and  other  fruits  abound  throughout  the  island. 
This  colony  has  not  yet  entirely  recovered  from  the  blow  given 


THE   CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  527 

to  cultivation  and  commerce  by  the  emancipation  of  the  negroes ; 
for  the  latter,  become  free,  are  no  longer  wdlling  to  labor,  even 
for  high  wages,  as  they  were  formerly  accustomed  to  do  when 
slaves ;  but  the  colonists  are  seeking  to  remedy  this  evil  by  intro- 
ducing into  the  English  Antilles  free  laborers,  procured  from 
Africa  or  the  Indies,  and  who  supersede  the  negroes  in  the  plaur 
tations.  Evangelical  missions,  by  previously  converting  and 
instructing  the  slaves,  had  prepared  them  to  receive  the  tidings 
of  their  emancipation  with  gratitude,  instead  of  regarding  it,  like 
those  of  St.  Domingo,  as  a  good  opportunity  for  avenging  them- 
selves upon  their  former  masters.  The  Protestant  religion  is  that 
of  the  majority  of  the  island ;  a  certain  number  of  negroes  are 
still  pagans  ;  but  the  greater  part  belong  to  zealous  churches, 
which  now  despatch  negro  missionaries  —  pastors  or  laymen  — 
to  propagate  the  Christian  religion  among  their  brethren  of  the 
African  continent. 

The  Lesser  Antilles.  —  These  islands  are  generally  moun- 
tainous, sprinkled  with  volcanoes,  for  the  most  part  extinct,  and 
known  under  the  names  of  sulphur  mines,  mornes,  and  peaks. 
Earthquakes  are  frequent,  and  hurricanes,  whose  violence  exceeds 
all  imagination,  only  too  often  lay  waste  these  beautiful  countries. 
The  climate  is  very  hot ;  but  as  the  atmosphere  is  at  the  same 
time  completely  impregnated  with  moisture,  the  inhabitants  live 
in  a  continual  vapor  bath,  very  injurious  to  the  health  of  foreign- 
ers. It  is  during  the  rainy  or  winter  season,  from  April  to  Octo- 
ber, that  the  most  fatal  maladies  (and  even  from  time  to  time  the 
yellow  fever)  are  developed.  The  vegetation  is  superb  in  most 
of  these  islands ;  but  it  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  of 
the  neighboring  countries,  such  as  Florida  or  Guiana.  Nowhere, 
however,  are  encountered  so  many  manchineel  trees,  whose  fruits, 
of  an  inviting  appearance,  cause  the  speedy  and  painful  death  of 
the  imprudent  individual  who  partakes  of  them  ;  if  a  drop  of  the 
corrosive  milk  of  this  tree  becomes  introduced  into  the  eyes,  it 
occasions  intolerable  suffering  for  a  day  at  least.  It  is^said  that 
the  negroes  frequently  lop  off  the  branches  and  cast  them  into 
the  water,  in  order,  by  poisoning  the  fish,  to  render  them  a  more 
easy  prey.  Another  tree,  originally  from  these  countries,  is  the 
papaio  tree,  whose  fruit,  in  the  form  of  a  melon,  is  especially 


528 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 


palatable  after  being  baked  in  the  oven  ;  its  juice  has  also  the 
effect  of  immediately  imparting  tenderness  to  the  viands  with 
which  it  is  mixed.  Yams,  batatas,  and  all  kinds  of  fruit,  supply 
the  place  of  bread  among  the  inhabitants  of  these  islands,  whose 
principal  revenues  are  derived  from  the  cultivation  of  the  colonial 
commodities,  sugar,  coffee,  indigo,  cotton,  arnotto,  and  tobacco. 


I 


Papato  Tree. 

The  indigenous  population,  for  some  centuries  extinct,  has  been 
replaced  by  negroes,  who  have  recently  been  emancipated  in  the 
greater  part  of  these  islands.  The  blacks  having  refused  to  work 
on  the  plantations,  free  laborers  have  been  introduced   from 


THE   CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  529 

Maderia  or  India,  and  the  production  in  consequence  is  rapidly 
augmenting.  The  greater  part  of  these  islands  belong  to  Eng- 
land —  Antigua,  St.  Christopher,  Dominica,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vin- 
cent, Grenada,  Barbadoes,  Tobago,  and  Trinidad ;  others  belong 
to  France  —  Martinique,  Guadaloupe,  &c.  The  Danes  possess 
the  three  small  islands  of  Santa  Cruz,  St.  Thomas,  and  St.  John; 
the  Dutch,  St.  Eustatius  and  Curagoa  ;  the  Swedes,  the  islet  of 
St.  Bartholomew.  They  are  often  subdivided  into  three  groups  — 
the  Virgin  Islands  at  the  north.  Windward  Islands  in  the  centre, 
and  Leeward  Islands,  that  is  to  say,  islands  sheltered  from  the 
trade  winds  by  their  situation  along  the  northern  coast  of  South 
America. 

Falkland  Islands.  —  This  archipelago,  which  consists  of 
two  large  islands  and  a  few  small  ones,  is  remarkable  for  the 
total  absence  of  all  kinds  of  trees,  for  its  turfy  soil,  and  the  abun- 
dance of  its  pastures,  which  feed  immense  herds  of  oxen,  horses, 
and  other  domestic  animals  which  have  there  become  wild. 
From  their  good  harbors  and  favorable  situation,  these  islands 
seem  naturally  designed  to  serve  as  havens  for  ships  which  double 
Cape  Horn.  Thus,  although  originally  uninhabited,  the  English 
have  not  neglected  to  found  a  settlement  there.  This  archipelago 
also  derives  importance  from  the  fishery  of  seals  and  whales, 
which  are  still  abundant.  Numerous  troops  of  sea  birds  likewise 
frequent  these  shores,  among  others  penguins,  or  manchots,  large 
birds  nearly  three  feet  in  height,  and  somewhat  resembling  geese ; 
their  wings  are  so  short  that  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  fly ;  thus 
they  easily  become  the  prey  of  the  sporstman,  who  usually  kills 
them  with  a  club.  The  only  indigenous  quadruped  found  in 
these  islands  is  a  species  of  wild  dog,  which  partakes  of  the  na- 
ture both  of  the  wolf  and  the  fox. 

Islands  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  Staten  Island.  — 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  so  called  on  account  of  its  active  volcanoes,  is  a 
body  of  mountainous,  cold,  and  sterile  islands.  They  are  sepa- 
rated from  Patagonia  by  the  long  and  intricate  Strait  of  Magellan, 
whose  navigation  is  rendered  so  difficult  by  the  winds  and  cur- 
rents, that  most  shipmasters  prefer  to  double  Cape  Horn,  not- 
withstanding the  icy  winds  which  rage  with  extreme  violence  in 
those  latitudes.  The  western  coasts,  bordered  by  huge  cliffs, 
45 


530 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE, 


beaten  almost  continually  by  hurricanes,  present  a  wild  and  terri- 
ble aspect.     Those  of  the  east  and  north,  of  a  more  prepossessing 


Penguins. 


nature,  contain  woods  and  pastures,  and  produce  hares,  foxes,  and 
even  horses.  The  southern  coasts  are  arid,  but  abound  in  otters, 
seals,  and  sea  birds ;  they  also  furnish  navigators  with  antiscor- 
butic plants  —  cresses  and  celery.  Staten  Island,  separated  from 
those  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  by  the  Strait  of  Le  Maire,  differs  from 
them  only  in  its  snowy  and  still  more  rugged  mountains.  The 
inhabitants,  of  revolting  uncleanliness,  are  like  those  of  Tierra  del 
Fuego — Patagonians,  of  ordinary  size,  very  ignorant,  and  almost 
wild. 

Chiloe  Islands.  —  This  archipelago,  situated  south-west  of 
Chili,  is  composed  of  about  80  islands,  only  25  of  which  are  in- 
habited. The  largest  is  Chiloe.  They  are  mountainous,  and 
possess  a  salubrious,  but  cold  and  rainy  climate.  They  contain 
some  mines  of  coal,  and  important  deposits  oi  guano,  tliat  valuable 


THE  CONTINENT  OP  AMERICA.  631 

excrement  of  birds,  of  which  we  have  spoken  in  connection  with 
Peru.  Wheat  and  flax  thrive  there  ;  the  forests  are  tenanted  by 
many  wild  boars.  The  population  is  composed  of  Indians  and 
Spaniards,  all  Catholics. 

Islands  of  Juan  Fernandez.  —  These  islands,  (Mas  a 
tierra,  nearer  land,  and  Mas  afuero,  further  out,)  situated  200 
leagues  from  the  coast  of  Chili,  are  mountainous  but  well  wa- 
tered, fertile,  tolerably  well  wooded,  of  an  agreeable  climate, 
and  nevertheless  uninhabited.  They  are  only  celebrated  through 
the  adventure  of  the  Scotch  sailor  Alexander  Selkirk,  who 
was  there  abandoned  by  his  captain  —  an  adventure  which 
inspired  Daniel  Defoe  with  his  ingenious  romance  of  Robinson 
Crusoe. 

Gallapagos  Islands.  —  This  group  of  small,  sterile,  de- 
serted, and  uninhabited  islands,  situated  more  than  200  leagues 
west  of  the  coast  of  Peru,  derive  their  name  from  the  innumera- 
ble tortoises  which  abound  there.  They  produce  also  the  ambly- 
rynchus,  a  lizard  of  about  three  feet  in  length,  remarkable  as 
being  the  only  animal  of  this  genus  which  lives  in  the  sea,  and 
which  has  consequently  some  analogy  to  the  great  fossil  lizards 
known  under  the  names  of  plesiosaurus  and  ichthyosaurus. 

Aleutian  Islands.  —  These  islands,  which  are  very  numer- 
ous, seem  to  be  the  continuation  of  the  peninsula  of  Aliaska. 
They  are  mountainous,  and  of  a  damp  rather  than  cold  climate. 
Barley,  potatoes,  and  legumes  succeed  perfectly  there ;  but  the 
hunt  of  seals  and  sea  otters  constitutes  the  principal  resource  of 
the  inhabitants.  In  the  month  of  May,  the  seals  arrive  with 
extraordinary  punctuality  at  the  Island  of  St.  Paul,  each  male 
followed  by  a  troop  of  from  10  to  200  females.  A  few  days 
after  their  arrival,  the  latter  give  birth  to  their  young,  and  devote 
the  remainder  of  the  summer  to  the  rearing  of  them.  In  the 
month  of  October,  the  seals  disappear,  departing  to  unknown 
quarters.  At  the  proper  season,  they  are  driven,  like  a  flock  of 
sheep,  into  an  establishment  situated  at  a  certain  distance  from 
the  sea.  There,  most  of  the  males  over  four  years  of  age  are 
set  aside  and  killed,  a  certain  number  of  the  largest  being  pre- 
served, with  all  the  females.  Since  they  are  no  longer  slain  in- 
discriminately, the  species  have  greatly  augmented ;  thus,  instead 


532  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

of  4000  skins,  which  were  formerly  exported  from  St.  Paul, 
23,000  were  obtained  thence  in  1851.  The  indigenous  popula- 
tion of  the  Aleutian  Isles  are  gradually  disappearing,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  oppression  and  misery  which  they  experience  at 
the  hands  of  the  Russian  colonists.  They  are  replaced  by  peas- 
ants, introduced  at  great  expense  from  Finland  or  Siberia ;  so 
true  it  is  that  from  north  to  south,  both  in  the  islands  and  on  the 
main  land,  America  seems  destined  to  become  a  New  Europe, 
where  the  surplus  populations  of  the  old  world  become  diffused 
and  found  flourishing  and  growing  colonies,  which  will  shortly 
outstrip  in  wealth  and  prosperity,  if  not  in  civihzation,  the  com- 
munities from  which  they  sprang.  Life,  youth,  and  the  spirit 
of  enterprise  seem  to  gain  daily-increasing  strength  in  this  new 
world,  and  the  most  brilliant  destinies  undoubtedly  await  it  in 
futurity. 


CHAPTER   X. 

OCEANICA. 

Section  1.  Divisions.  —  The  fifth  division  of  the  globe 
comprises  the  innumerable  islands,  of  various  dimensions,  with 
which  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  studded,  and  is  usually  considered  un- 
der three  divisions —  Central  Oceanica,  or  Australia;  Western 
Oceanica,  or  the  Malay  Archipelago ;  and  Eastern  Oceanica,  or 
Polynesia. 

Sect.  2.  Central  Oceanic  a.  —  Australia,  whose  extent 
is  nearly  equivalent  to  three  quarters  of  Europe,  is  a  continent  still 
more  imperfect  than  Africa.  Its  coasts  are,  indeed,  indented  by 
a  considerable  number  of  bays  and  harbors,  which  are  capable  of 
sheltering  entire  fleets;  but  it  is  every  where  destitute  (except 
perhaps  at  the  north-east)  of  the  advantages  which,  as  we  are 
aware,  result  to  a  continent  from  the  existence  of  a  great  number 
of  peninsulas  and  deep  gulfs.  Another  circumstance  detrimental 
to  this  continent  is,  that  instead  of  possessing  towards  its  centre 
a  high  country,  whence  issue  great  rivers,  by  means  of  which 
one  can  penetrate  with  more  or  less  facility  from  the  borders  of 
the  sea  into  the  interior,  it  seems  to  contain  only  vast,  low,  and 
arid  plains,  where  most  of  the  rivers  which  descend  from  the 
mountains  disappear. 

Moreover  nature  and  animated  life  in  this  country  every  where 
present  strange  anomalies.  In  consequence  of  its  position  in  the 
opposite  hemisphere,  the  seasons  in  Australia  are  directly  the 
reverse  of  our  own,  and  Christmas  is  usually  the  hottest  day  in 
the  year ;  the  north  wind,  which  congeals  our  soil,  parches  and 
deeply  fissures  the  Australian  fields,  where  the  husbandmen  rise 
when  we  go  to  rest. 

The  vegetables  are  no  less  extraordinary.  There  are  found 
magnificent  flowers,  rich  in  honey,  but  without  perfume ;  nettles 
4d  *  (533) 


534  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

and  ferns  of  the  height  of  our  oaks,  whilst  the  poplars  are  only 
small  shrubs ;  vast  forests  springing  from  the  bare  sand,  but 
which  afford  neither  shade  nor  freshness ;  trees  whose  wood 
resists  the  action  of  fire,  others  which  annually  shed  their  bark, 
while  their  leaves  always  remain  on  the  branches  ;  certain  fruits 
which  resemble  our  pears,  but  which  are  suspended  from  the  tree 
by  the  largest  part  of  the  fruit ;  others  which  have  been  compared 
to  cherries  with  the  flesh  inside  and  the  stone  outside,  &c. 

The  animals  are  more  singular  still,  in  the  eyes  of  a  foreigner. 
The  great  majority  of  the  quadrupeds  of  Australia  are  marsu- 
pials, or  animals  with  pouches  like  the  opossum ;  others  have  a 
bill  like  birds  ;  there  are  likewise  dogs  which  never  bark.  Most 
of  the  birds  possess  magnificent  plumage,  but  are  not  gifted  with 
song ;  many  species,  instead  of  a  tongue,  have  a  kind  of  brush, 
which  enables  them  to  lap  from  the  flowers  the  honey  on  which 
they  subsist.  Swans  and  cockatoos,  every  where  else  white,  are 
here  black:  the  eagle  and  the  redbreast,  on  the  contrary,  are 
white. 

As  respects  the  human  race,  the  contrast  is  no  less  marked 
between  the  miserable  black  native,  whose  leanness  and  lack  of 
inteUigence  consign  him  to  the  lowest  round  of  the  human  ladder, 
and  that  throng  of  active  and  enterprising  English  colonists,  who 
emigrate  in  constantly  increasing  numbers,  to  establish  themselves 
on  all  these  shores,  cultivate  the  soil,  and  work  the  mines,  ever 
driving  the  ancient  proprietors  of  the  country  farther  and  farther 
towards  the  unknown  solitudes  of  the  interior. 

This  continent,  discovered  about  200  years  ago  by  Dutch  nav- 
igators, who  gave  it  the  name  of  New  Holland,  by  which  it  is  still 
frequently  designated,  seems  then,  in  every  point  of  view,  to 
promise  a  new,  curious,  and  interesting  study,  and  one  which  is 
well  worthy  of  our  attention. 

Seas  which  encompass  Australia.  —  This  continent  is 
washed  by  two  seas,  with  which  we  are  already  acquainted — the 
Pacific  Ocean  at  the  east,  and  the  Indian  Ocean  at  the  north, 
west,  and  south-west.  They  communicate  with  each  other  by 
two  celebrated  and  much  frequented,  although  very  danger- 
ous straits  —  the  Strait  of  Bass,  which,  at  the  south,  separates 
Cape  Wilson  from  the  Island  of  Van  Dieraen,  and  the  Strait 


OCEANICA.  535 

of  Torres,  which,  at  the  north,  separates  Cape  York  from  New 
Guinea. 

Bass  Strait  is  obstructed  by  a  great  number  of  islands,  now 
partly  inhabited  by  the  strange  population  of  'kraitsmen,  former 
convicts,  or  criminals,  condemned  by  the  law,  who,  discharged  or 
having  escaped  thither,  subsist  by  fishing,  seal  hunting,  and  the 
capture  of  birds'  eggs ;  they  marry  Australian  women,  but  still 
rear  their  robust  descendants  with  a  certain  degree  of  care.  The 
principal  commerce  of  the  straitsmen  consists  in  the  sale  of  the 
feathers  of  black  petrels,  which  annually  visit  these  islands,  towards 
the  15th  or  20th  of  November,  to  hatch  their  eggs.  Each  female 
lays  two  eggs,  of  about  the  size  of  those  of  a  goose,  and  almost  as 
good  an  article  of  food.  The  male  sits  during  the  day,  and  the 
female  during  the  night,  and  each  in  turn  goes  to  seek  its 
food  in  the  open  sea.  As  soon  as  the  wings  of  the  little  ones  are 
developed,  they  all  quit  the  islands.  Their  nests  are  sunk  two  or 
three  feet  in  the  earth,  and  so  well  concealed  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  perceive  them  in  time  to  avoid  falhng  into  them. 
When  the  fishermen  or  their  wives  wish  to  capture  a  great  num- 
ber of  petrels,  (not  being  content  with  their  eggs,)  they  construct 
a  palisade  at  a  httle  distance  from  the  shore,  and  at  daybreak,  at 
the  time  when  the  birds  are  preparing  to  regain  the  sea,  they 
pursue  them,  making  a  great  noise,  and  driving  them  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  palisade.  The  latter,  which  in  flying  cannot  exceed 
a  certain  height,  run  along  the  enclosure  without  being  able  to 
surmount  it,  and  finally  fall  into  a  great  ditch,  purposely  dug, 
where  they  mutually  stifle  each  other.  The  feathers  are  packed 
in  sacks  and  despatched  to  Launceston,  (a  town  of  Van  Diemen's 
Land,)  where  they  bring  a  good  price ;  the  flesh,  smoked  and 
dried,  constitutes  the  principal  food  of  the  straitsmen,  although 
tough  and  ill  flavored. 

The  Strait  of  Torres  is  always  the  safest  route  that  can  be  pur- 
sued by  ships  sailing  from  the  Southern  Pacific  into  the  Indian 
Ocean  ;  for  the  trade  wind  from  the  south-east  blows  in  this  direc- 
tion during  nearly  the  whole  year.  And  yet  the  navigation  of 
this  strait,  and  of  the  neighboring  seas,  thickly  sprinkled  with 
islets  and  submarine  coral  reefs,  must  always  be  attended  with 
peril.      Foggy  weather,  a  mistake  in  reckoning,  a  derangement 


636  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

of  the  marine  watches  or  chronometers,  and  other  accidents  diffi- 
cult to  foresee  or  prevent,  may  at  any  moment  cause  the  destruc- 
tion of  vessels. 

The  Coral  Sea,  south-east  of  the  Strait  of  Torres,  is  particu- 
larly celebrated  for  its  dangers  and  shipwrecks.  For  a  space  of 
more  than  300  leagues  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Australia,  and 
across  the  strait  itself,  extends  a  great  harrier  of  reefs,  the  most 
vast  formation  of  coral  that  exists  in  the  world.  Bising  abruptly 
from  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  this  bank,  of  only  a  few  hundred 
feet  in  breadth,  suddenly  arrests  the  course  of  the  waves ;  the 
latter  shoot  upwards  in  dark  blue  mountains,  and  descend  again 
in  an  uninterrupted  cataract  of  dazzling  foam.  The  fearful  agi- 
tation, and  the  incessant  roaring  of  the  billows,  which  sometimes 
resembles  the  rolling  of  thunder,  combine  to  form  a  spectacle 
replete  with  grandeur  and  majesty.  Inevitable  destruction  awaits 
the  unfortunate  ship  which  is  driven  by  the  storm  upon  these  for- 
midable shoals.  In  ordinary  weather,  no  danger  is  to  be  appre- 
hended, on  account  of  the  wonderful  transparency  of  the  waters 
of  the  ocean  in  this  vicinity.  This  transparency  is  such  that  from 
the  top  of  a  mast  a  reef  buried  beneath  five  fathoms  of  water 
may  be  distinguished  at  the  distance  of  more  than  a  quarter  of  an 
hour's  sail,  so  much  does  its  color  differ  from  that  of  the  sea 
which  covers  it. 

Only  a  small  number  of  open  passages  present  themselves 
throughout  this  long  barrier,  separated  from  the  coasts  of  Aus- 
tralia by  a  space  of  from  7  to  20  or  25  leagues.  The  EngHsh 
government  has  constructed  lighthouses  upon  the  islands,  situated 
at  the  entrance  (or  outlet)  of  those  among  these  passages  which 
offer  the  most  security.  Yery  curious  are  some  of  these  madre- 
poric  islands — veritable  paradises  of  birds,  whose  soil  has  never 
been  occupied  by  man.  The  surface  is  literally  covered  with 
frigates,  gannets,  boobies,  tern,  and  other  sea  birds.  At  night- 
fall they  may  be  seen  flocking  on  swift  wings  from  different  points 
of  the  horizon ;  and  if  by  day  one  crosses  the  island  with  a  rapid 
step,  thousands  arise  from  all  sides,  uttering  cries  of  indignation 
and  terror,  which  resemble  the  noise  of  mighty  waters.  The  ex- 
istence of  these  myriads  of  creatures,  completely  useless  to  man, 
and  yet  so  liberally  provided  from  the  commencement  of  the 


OCEANICA.  537 

world  with  every  thing  that  is  essential  to  their  welfare,  is  certain- 
ly one  of  the  wonders  of  creation.  How  confidently,  then,  may 
man  rely  upon  the  care  of  that  divine  Providence  which  mani- 
fests such  constant  and  devoted  solicitude  for  the  birds  of  the 
South  Sea!  The  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  south-west  of  the  peninsula 
of  the  same  name,  and  of  the  Cape  of  York,  is  a  vast  gulf  of  the 
Indian  Sea,  which  seems  destined  to  become  entirely  absorbed  in 
the  course  of  time.  Its  bottom  is  flat,  miry,  and  shallow.  To  a 
great  distance  from  the  shore  stretches  a  large  bank  of  mud, 
which  is  covered  by  only  a  few  feet  of  water,  and  which  almost 
every  where  prevents  vessels  from  approaching  the  land  ;  but  at 
the  mouths  of  rivers,  a  canal  has  been  worn  by  the  current  across 
this  bank.  The  coast  in  the  vicinity  of  the  gulf  presents  only  an 
immense  plain,  almost  completely  arid,  and  which  seems  to  have 
recently  issued  from  the  sea.  In  proportion  as  the  waters  recede, 
the  border  of  mangroves,  which  encircles  the  coast,  advances, 
leaving  behind  it  a  plain  of  greater  and  greater  extent,  and 
clothed  with  a  meagre  vegetation. 

A  curious  phenomenon  of  this  gulf,  and  of  the  neighboring  sea, 
is  a  current  of  water  as  white  as  milk,  which  regularly  in  the 
month  of  June,  or  in  the  months  of  August  and  September,  be- 
comes diffused  even  in  the  environs  of  the  Moluccas,  situated  at  a 
great  distance  towards  the  north.  These  waters  are  luminous 
and  phosphorescent  during  the  night ;  the  whitish  color,  which 
characterizes  them  by  day,  is  attributed  to  the  presence  of  infinite 
myriads  of  eggs  of  certain  marine  animals. 

In  this  gulf  also,  and  in  these  seas,  is  prosecuted  the  fishery  for 
the  trepang,  a  species  of  holothuria,  or  mollusk,  without  a  shell, 


Trepang. 

having  a  fleshy  body,  of  one  or  two  feet  in  length,  in  which  scarce- 
ly any  organ  is  distinguishable.  As  it  usually  remains  attached 
to  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  upon  banks  of  mud  or  coral  reefs,  the 


538  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

talent  of  the  fisherman  consists  in  understanding  the  art  of  diving, 
and  having  an  eye  practised  in  discerning  it  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water.  In  order  to  preserve  it,  it  is  cast  alive  into  a  kettle  of 
boiling  sea  water,  where  it  is  kept  constantly  in  motion  for  ten 
minutes.  At  the  expiration  of  this  time,  the  trepang  is  taken 
from  the  kettle,  having  ejected  in  abundance  the  water  which  it 
contains  in  the  interior  of  its  body.  A  man  provided  with  a  large 
knife  then  opens  it,  and  extracts  its  intestines,  after  which  it  is 
thrown  into  a  second  kettle,  where  it  is  boiled  with  the  bark  of 
the  mimosa,  with  which  it  must  be  smoked  in  order  to  insure  its 
preservation.  It  then  only  requires  to  be  washed  in  several  wa- 
ters to  remove  as  much  as  possible  the  disagreeable  taste  of  coral, 
which  it  always,  to  some  degree,  preserves,  after  which  it  is  dried 
on  hurdles  in  the  sun,  and  sent  to  China,  where  it  is  highly  ap- 
preciated. Its  price  varies  according  to  the  quality ;  the  most 
choice  is  sold  for  about  500  or  600  francs  a  bushel.  Of  it  the 
Chinese  make  soups  and  ragouts,  and  in  order  to  disguise  the  sea 
flavor,  boil  it  with  sugar  cane. 

The  mountains  of  Australia  are  still  very  imperfectly  known. 
The  principal  of  them  form  a  long  chain,  which  extends  from  Cape 
York  to  Cape  Wilson,  along  the  eastern  coast,  from  which  they 
only  recede  for  a  distance  of  from  20  to  50  leagues.  This  chain 
sometimes  forms  many  parallel  ridges,  and  sometimes  expands  in 
groups  which  project  secondary  chains  at  the  east  and  west. 

Blue  Mountains  and  Australian  Alps.  —  The  name  of 
Blue  Mountains  has  been  given  to  the  most  considerable  portion 
of  this  chain,  which  extends  from  the  environs  of  the  city  of  Syd- 
ney, as  far  as  Cape  Wilson.  The  most  southern  portion,  how- 
ever, is  that  which  possesses  the  highest  summits,  and  is  known 
under  the  name  of  Australian  Alps  ;  3Iount  Kosciusko,  which  is 
the  principal  peak,  attains,  it  is  true,  only  6800  feet,  but  its  situ- 
ation is  so  favorable  that  from  its  abrupt  and  snowy  summit  the 
view  commands  a  space  of  7000  square  miles.  Although  but 
little  elevated,  these  Australian  Alps  contain  eternal  snows. 

Notwithstanding  that  the  existence  of  volcanic  mountains  and 
great  streams  of  lava  has  been  ascertained  in  this  chain,  it  does 
not  appear  that  any  volcano  in  activity  is  found  in  these  or  any 
other  mountains  of  the  Australian  continent.     In  1818  there  was 


OCEANICA.  639 

discovered  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Hunter  River,  on  its  eastern 
bank,  a  hill  on  fire,  called  by  the  savages  wigen,  (puigen,  which 
in  their  language  signifies  fire.)  The  conflagration  extends  over 
an  inconsiderable  space.  The  light  and  bluish  flame  issues 
through  holes  and  crevices,  the  greatest  width  of  which  is  three 
feet.  Red  flames  are  visible  at  a  depth  of  about  20  feet ;  but  as 
very  large  trees  flourish  near  these  openings,  and  the  latter  seem 
to  experience  no  detriment  from  the  proximity  of  the  fire,  it  has 
been  concluded  that  it  was  not  a  volcano,  but  a  coal  pit,  or  mine 
of  some  other  combustible  substance,  which  had  become  ignited, 
and  continued  to  burn  quietly,  as  is  the  case  in  certain  countries 
in  Europe. 

All  these  mountains  partake  of  the  eccentric  character  which 
pervades  the  whole  continent.  They  scarcely  any  where  present 
rounded  summits,  sharp  peaks,  or  regular  slopes.  Their  crests 
are  long,  flat  surfaces,  which  terminate  abruptly  in  deep  and 
tortuous  precipices.  Here  is  a  hill  in  the  form  of  a  chest ;  there 
a  house  with  chimneys,  or  a  gigantic  hat  or  bonnet  of  conical 
shape ;  every  where,  in  a  word,  a  medley  of  all  kinds  of  forms, 
which  seem  to  have  been  mingled  and  thrown  together  in  a  most 
promiscuous  manner.  The  different  ramifications  are,  moreover, 
separated  by  obscure  and  almost  subterranean  valleys,  bordered 
with  impassable  precipices,  through  which  rivers  flow  silently,  or 
in  foaming  torrents,  the  whole  forming  a  barrier  so  arduous  and 
steep  that  it  was  long  believed  inaccessible.  By  daring  exploits, 
a  road  has  been  opened,  which,  along  excessively  deep  abysses, 
presents  fearfully  picturesque  views. 

These  mountains  are  tolerably  well  wooded,  and  give  rise  to  a 
great  number  of  rivers,  some  of  which  flow  easterly,  and  after  a 
limited  course  empty  into  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  others,  pursuing  a 
westerly  course,  disappear  for  the  most  part  in  the  deserts  of  the 
interior.  But  the  circumstance  which  has  recently  attached  great 
importance  to  these  mountains,  and  attracted  towards  them  the 
attention  of  the  whole  world,  is  the  existence  of  gold  mines,  much 
richer,  even,  than  those  of  California,  which  were  suddenly  dis- 
covered in  the  spring  of  1851,  in  the  dried  beds  of  several  of  the 
rivers  of  the  western  declivity.  A  land  owner  of  this  country,  on 
returning  from  an  expedition  made  to  California  in  search  of 


540  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

gold,  fancying  he  perceived  an  astonishing  resemblance  between 
the  soils  of  the  two  countries,  commenced  digging  operations, 
which  were  attended  with  the  most  marvellous  success.  His  dis- 
covery was  immediately  made  public,  a  rich  recompense  was 
awarded  him  by  the  English  government,  and  people  flocked  to 
the  mines  from  all  quarters. 

Stories  have  been  related  on  the  subject  of  these  diggings 
worthy  of  the  tales  of  the  Thousand  and  One  Nights.  Thus  it 
is  narrated,  that  a  native  in  the  service  of  a  colonist,  observing 
his  master  carefully  lay  aside  a  few  pieces  of  gold,  promised  to 
procure  him  a  great  lump  of  the  same  material,  in  exchange  for 
some  trifling  articles  of  dress,  and  that  he  brought  him,  in  fact, 
a  block  containing  gold  to  the  amount  of  $20,000.  Another 
black  native,  who  had  been  instructed  by  the  missionaries,  also 
acquainted  his  master,  Dr.  Kear,  with  the  existence  of  an  enor- 
mous block  of  auriferous  quartz,  of  about  three  quintals  weight. 
The  doctor,  knowing  no  other  means  of  removing  this  mass,  de- 
cided to  break  it,  and  obtained  from  it  a  quantity  of  ingots  valued 
at  $32,000,  the  largest  of  which,  resembling  a  honeycomb  or 
sponge,  and  weighing,  of  itself  alone,  little  less  than  75  pounds, 
yielded  about  60  pounds  of  pure  gold. 

The  richest  deposits  are  found  in  the  veins  of  a  blue  clay, 
where  the  perfectly  pure  ore  appears  to  have  been  conveyed  by 
the  water,  in  fragments  weighing  from  a  quarter  of  an  ounce 
to  2  or  3  ounces.  Sometimes  it  is  encased  in  round  pebbles  of 
quartz,  detached,  also,  from  the  neighboring  mountains,  and  swept 
away  by  the  waters.  In  this  case,  the  fragments  which  are  ob- 
tained weigh  as  much  as  7  or  8  ounces.  In  the  famous  mines  of 
Ophir,  in  Bathurst  county,  228  ounces  of  gold  have  been  found 
in  two  lumps,  corroded  by  the  waters.  Three  men  in  three  days 
have  been  known  to  collect  there  10  pounds  of  gold. 

Australian  Pyrenees.  —  West  of  the  Australian  Alps, 
which  direct  their  course  from  north-east  to  south-west,  are  the 
Pyrenees,  which  extend  first  from  east  to  west,  then  from  north 
to  south.  It  is  an  important  chain,  whose  summit,  always  crowned 
with  snow,  and  of  a  dazzling  whiteness,  is  visible  to  a  great  dis- 
tance at  sea,  and  whose  waters  nourish  the  most  considerable 


OCEANIC  A.  541 

rivers  of  Australia.  This  chain  has  presented  gold  bearings  still 
richer  than  the  preceding.  In  the  district  of  Mount  Alexander, 
among  others,  enormous  quantities  of  gold  have  been  discovered 
on  the  surface  of  the  soil.  There  are  instances  of  50  pounds  be- 
ing amassed  in  a  few  hours'  labor.  In  six  days  three  men  have 
accumulated  192  pounds  weight.  Elsewhere,  four  colonists,  come 
thither  as  amateurs,  collected  150  pounds  between  the  hours  of 
breakfast  and  dinner.  These  first  bearings  have  become  ex- 
hausted, and  the  diggings  must  now  be  executed  at  a  great  depth, 
even  to  the  clayey  subsoil,  pursuing  the  direction  of  the  tor- 
rents and  rivers  which  descend  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  River 
Murray. 

Mountains  of  Southern  Australia.  —  West  of  the  pre- 
ceding chain,  between  the  mouth  of  the  Murray  River  and  the 
Gulf  of  Spencer,  rise  the  mountains  of  Southern  Australia,  which 
proceed  from  south  to  north,  and  have  become  celebrated  through 
their  rich  copper  mines.  The  most  important  —  that  of  Burra- 
Burra  —  was  discovered  by  accident,  95  miles  from  the  city  of 
Adelaide,  capital  of  the  province.  It  is  the  most  extensive,  the 
richest,  and  the  most  productive  in  the  whole  world.  The  dis- 
covery of  the  gold  mines  has,  for  a  time,  caused  its  exploration  to 
be  somewhat  neglected  ;  but  it  is,  nevertheless,  still  considerable, 
and  the  ore  is  of  such  superior  quality  that  it  yields  98  per  cent. 
Thus  the  proceeds  of  this  enterprise  have  rapidly  risen  from  $40 
to  $900.  Other  less  productive  mines  have  been  successively 
explored ;  one  among  them  was  found  to  contain  a  very  abun- 
dant vein  of  gold. 

Many  mines  of  argentiferous  lead  have  also  been  discovered  in 
this  country,  one  of  which  yields  80  per  cent,  of  lead,  while  the 
silver  met  with  bears  the  proportion  of  12  per  cent.  The  pro- 
duction of  copper  constitutes,  however,  the  principal  wealth  of 
this  region.  In  1852,  the  produce  of  the  copper  mines  of  Ade- 
laide colony  amounted  to  about  $1,800,000. 

Darling-  Mountains.  —  At  about  20  miles  from  the  western 
coast  of  Australia,  the  chain  of  the  Darling  Mountains  runs  from 
north  to  south,  over  an  extent  of  more  than  400  miles.  They 
are  mountains  of  little  importance,  whose  summits  scarcely  ex- 
ceed 1500  feet,  with  the  exception  of  the  William  and  Keat 
46 


542  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

Mountains,  which  are  about  3500  feet  high.  Farther  east,  the 
Sterling  Mountains  extend  as  far  as  the  southern  coast.  The 
Darhng  Mountains  are  also  rich  in  mineral  substances,  although 
they  have  not  yet  revealed  gold  mines.  Alum  is  found  there  in 
great  profusion ;  salt  in  abundance ;  ferruginous  sand,  from  which 
quantities  of  pure  iron  are  extracted ;  mines  of  argentiferous 
lead;  and  what  is  of  more  value  still,  considerable  beds  of  coal, 
not  far  from  Champion  Bay. 

Rivers  and  Lakes  op  Australia.  —  In  reviewing  the 
rivers  or  lakes  of  Australia,  we  must  necessarily  modify  our  usual 
ideas,  as,  likewise,  in  the  consideration  of  its  forests ;  in  their 
usual  state,  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  the  Australian  continent  con- 
tain no  water.  The  locality  of  a  lake  is  recognized  by  the  de- 
pression of  the  soil,  as  well  as  by  the  nature  of  the  vegetation, 
and  sometimes  by  the  softness  of  the  soil,  which  is  covered  by  a 
thick  bed  of  slime.  A  river  is  merely  a  kind  of  large  ditch,  filled 
with  water  at  intervals,  after  heavy  rains,  but  in  which,  usually, 
only  a  few  pools  of  water  are  here  and  there  encountered.  One 
may  often  cross  the  bed  of  a  river  without  in  the  least  suspecting 
it.  But  after  an  abundant  rain  has  fallen  in  the  mountains,  furi- 
ous torrents  may  be  seen  descending  for  several  days,  or  for  a  few 
hours  only,  which  often  commence  in  a  stream  of  stones  and  mud 
of  a  very  strange  aspect,  and  whose  sudden  and  noisy  approach 
strikes  one  with  terror. 

At  other  times,  the  traveller,  after  crossing  a  dry  and  dusty 
country,  producing  only  a  few  tufts  of  yellow  grass,  rushes  pant- 
ing towards  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water ;  but  alas !  it  is  salt,  more  so 
even  than  the  waves  of  the  sea.  He  need  not,  however,  be  dis- 
couraged ;  for  if  he  descend  or  ascend  the  bed  of  the  river  for  a 
short  time,  he  is  almost  sure  to  discover  another  basin  of  water, 
which  will  this  time  prove  deliciously  pure. 

These  peculiarities  must  not  be  exaggerated.  It  has  long  been 
supposed  that  Australia  contained  no  rivers,  properly  so  called, 
and  that  all  its  streams  become  absorbed  in  the  marshes  or  sands 
of  the  interior.  But  new  discoveries  have  brought  to  hght  the 
existence  of  remarkable  rivers,  among  others  the  Darling  and 
the  Murray,  which  unite  not  far  from  the  sea,  and  at  whose  mouth 
is  found  Lake  Alexandrina,     The  waters  of  the  Darling,  at  first 


OCEANICA.  643 

salt,  have  become  fresh  when  it  unites  with  the  Murray.  It 
receives  a  very  great  number  of  affluents  from  the  western  decliv- 
ity of  the  Blue  Mountains  —  affluents  which,  it  is  true,  remain  dry 
during  nearly  the  whole  year,  and  in  whose  beds  much  gold  has 
been  discovered.  The  principal  of  these  rivers  are  from  north 
to  south  —  the  Ban  wan,  the  Gwydir,  the  River  Peel,  the  Mac- 
quarie,  the  Bogan,&c.  The  Murray  descends  from  the  Australian 
Alps,  and  owing  to  their  eternal  snows,  is  almost  the  only  perma- 
nent watercourse  of  this  country.  Last  year,  (1854,)  the  steam- 
boat Lady  Augusta,  succeeded  in  ascending  this  river  to  a  distance 
of  1000  miles  above  its  mouth,  and  it  is  hoped  that  this  navigation 
can  be  carried  yet  higher,  which  will  insure  an  active  communi- 
cation between  the  heart  of  three  of  the  principal  provinces  and 
the  sea.  The  Murray  first  directs  its  course  from  east  to  west,  at 
the  foot  of  the  northern  slope  of  the  Pyrenees,  as  far  as  the  point 
where  it  meets  the  mountains  of  Southern  Australia,  which  force 
it  towards  the  sea.  Its  principal  affluents,  on  the  northern  side, 
are  the  Darling  and  the  Murrumbidgee,  the  latter  of  which  is 
swollen  by  the  waters  of  the  Lachlan,  and  by  a  great  number  of 
small  rivers.  On  the  southern  side  are  rivers  become  celebrated 
since  the  discovery  of  the  gold  bearings  of  the  Pyrenees  —  the 
Mitta-Mitta,  the  Orens,  the  Goulburn,  and  the  Loddon.  The 
vast  basin  of  the  Murray  may  then  be  considered,  in  a  general 
manner,  as  the  line  towards  which  tend  the  richest  auriferous 
deposits. 

A  number  of  other  rivers  have  as  yet  been  only  partially 
explored,  but  will  soon  become  better  known.  They  appear  to 
direct  their  course  towards  the  vast  Lake  Torrens,  a  kind  of  in- 
land sea,  possessing  singular,  but  at  present  very  imperfect  out- 
lines, and  which  probably  communicates  with  the  Southern  Sea, 
by  the  Spencer  Gulf. 

The  only  considerable  watercourse  of  the  western  coast  is  the 
Swan  River,  which  rises  in  the  Darling  Mountains,  and  at  first 
bears  the  name  of  Avon.  In  summer  the  Avon  does  not  flow, 
but  forms  great  natural  reservoirs,  sufficient  to  water  numerous 
droves  of  cattle.  On  the  eastern  coast  are  found,  also,  a  certain 
number  of  small  rivers,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  Hawkes- 
bury,  Patterson,  and  Brisbane. 


544  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

Plains  and  Coasts  of  Australia.  —  The  different  regions 
of  which  Australia  is  composed  are  still  so  imperfectly  known 
in  respect  to  their  physical  configuration,  that  we  can  only  under- 
take to  give  an  approximate  description,  although  drawn  from 
very  recent  sources. 

Swan  River  Colony,  or  Western  Australia.  —  The 
only  well-known  portion  is  that  which  extends  from  Swan  River 
to  the  southern  point,  or  Albany.  It  has  already  been  divided 
by  the  English  government  into  26  counties,  which,  on  the  map, 
cut  each  other  at  right  angles,  like  the  squares  of  a  chess  board. 
Many  rivers  are  found  there,  and  various  lakes,  some  of  salt  and 
others  of  fresh  water,  as  likewise  rich  pastures,  and  lands  very 
suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  all  kinds  of  grain.  There  is  gen- 
erally a  dearth  of  permanent  water  springs,  but  the  colonists  sup- 
ply the  deficiency  by  constructing  great  reservoirs  for  watering 
the  cattle.  The  soil  in  this  country  is  composed  almost  entirely 
of  sand  ;  but  instead  of  being  arid  and  sterile,  like  that  of  Africa, 
it  produces  all  the  most  beautiful  and  exquisite  plants  that  are  to 
be  found  in  the  gardens  of  Europe. 

The  climate  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  world,  and  many  colonists, 
arriving  in  shattered  health,  speedily  recover  their  strength,  and 
even  attain  extreme  old  age.  The  heat  of  summer  is  by  no 
means  overpowering,  the  sea  breezes  blowing  periodically  from 
eleven  o'clock  until  sunset.  The  nights  are  refreshed  by  dews  ; 
it  is,  however,  neither  dangerous  nor  unhealthy  to  sleep  in  the 
open  air,  especially  when  one  is  stationed  near  a  good  fire.  Snow 
never  falls  in  winter,  but  frosts  are  quite  frequent. 

Mineral  substances  are  not  wanting,  and  will  ere  long  acquire 
great  importance.  Among  others  have  been  found  pipe  clay  of 
superior  quality,  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  pottery  ware, 
salt  in  abundance,  alum,  argentiferous  lead,  mineral  coal,  and  a 
few  veins  of  copper,  as  yet  but  little  worked. 

The  vegetation  of  this  colony,  as  that  of  Australia  generally, 
presents  so  peculiar  and  original  a  character,  that  it  might  easily 
be  imagined  the  production  of  another  planet.  Many  entire 
orders  of  plants  are  known  only  in  Australia,  and  the  classes  and 
species  which  grow  elsewhere  there  assume  new  and  singular 
forms.     All  the  impressions  of  freshness  and  verdure,  which  in 


OCEANICA.  545 

the  memory  of  a  European  are  associated  with  the  recollection 
of  a  forest,  are  there  shocked  in  a  manner  as  disagreeable  as  un- 
foreseen. The  woods  of  these  regions  furnish  so  little  shade  that 
the  rays  of  the  sun  are  more  scorching  than  in  the  open  fields, 
where  nothing  at  least  counteracts  the  refreshing  effect  of  the 
breeze.  The  trees,  however,  preserve  their  leaves  throughout  the 
year ;  but  the  latter  are  so  narrow  that  they  afford  no  shade,  and 
owing  to  their  invariable  olive-green  tint,  present  the  most  gloomy 
aspect ;  the  direction  of  these  leaves,  whose  point  inclines  down- 
wards, gives  a  very  peculiar  fringed  appearance  to  the  clusters  of 
trees.  But  if  the  Australian  vegetation  does  not  awaken  admira- 
tion, it  lacks  neither  variety  nor  vigor.  It  includes,  for  example, 
more  than  a  hundred  species  of  eucalyptus,  large  trees  which  grow 
in  sandy  soils,  and  which,  together  with  the  leafless  acacias,  im- 
part to  the  landscape  its  prevailing  character.  One  of  the  most 
majestic  species  is  the  eucalyptus  rohusta,  whose  trunk  is  oflen 
140  feet  in  height,  from  the  surface  of  the  soil  to  the  lowest 
branches,  and  30  in  circumference.  Its  wood,  of  a  deep-red  color, 
and  offering  little  temptation  to  the  devastating  tooth  of  the  white 
ant,  is  easily  cut,  and  may  be  employed  in  all  kinds  of  workman- 
ship. It  is  known  under  the  name  of  Australian  mahogany.  The 
eucalyptus  resinifera  is,  of  all  the  trees  of  this  continent,  the  most 
useful  to  the  natives,  who  sustain  themselves  upon  the  red  gum 
which  it  exudes,  which  also  possesses  excellent  medicinal  qualities. 
Another  species  of  eucalyptus,  whose  white  wood,  although  of 
iron  hardness,  is  still  preyed  upon  by  the  white  ant,  in  preference 
to  any  other,  preserves  in  the  interior  of  its  trunk  a  supply  of 
rain  water,  which  the  natives  can  procure  by  boring  a  hole  in  the 
knots  of  the  trunk.  With  this  water  they  quench  their  thirst  as 
at  a  limpid  spring,  afterwards  stopping  up  the  aperture,  to  avail 
themselves  of  more  on  a  future  occasion.  The  bark  of  its  roots 
is  one  of  the  aliments  on  which  they  subsist ;  they  roast  and 
knead  it,  and  after  having  chewed  it,  eject  it  from  the  mouth. 
From  these  roots,  also,  they  obtain  worms  of  a  yellow  color,  and 
of  a  finger's  length,  which  they  eat  with  great  relish. 

The   xanthorrhea  renders  services  of  the  same  nature,  and 
many  others  beside.     The  natives  uproot  as  many  of  them  as 
they  can,  and  when  the  wood  of  this  tree  is  in  a  state  of  putre- 
46* 


546  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

faction,  quantities  of  larvas,  or  worms,  are  formed  in  it  which 
serve  them  for  food.  The  xanthorrhea  sometimes  rises  as  many 
as  14  feet:  it  flourishes  in  all  kinds  of  soils,  and  multiplies  in 
certain  localities  of  Western  Australia  to  such  a  degree  as  even 
to  obstruct  the  passage  of  man.  All  animals,  and  especially  those 
of  the  bovine  race,  are  fond  of  the  flower.  The  stalk  of  this 
flower  is  used  principally  for  kindling  fires ;  the  trunk,  which  is 
very  resinous,  burns  a  long  time,  producing  a  very  lively  flame ; 
the  leaves  compose  the  beds  of  the  natives,  or  serve  them  for 
torches ;  they  are  also  used,  both  by  them  and  by  the  colonists, 
instead  of  tiles  for  covering  their  houses.  The  resinous  gum 
which  exudes  from  the  trunk  of  this  tree  is  employed  in  manu- 
facturing and  perfecting  their  hammers,  other  utensils,  and  even 
weapons.  The  tenacity  of  this  gum,  when  prepared  by  the  sav- 
ages, surpasses  that  of  any  other  mastic  known  in  Europe. 

The  species  of  the  acacia  are  even  more  numerous  than  those 
of  the  eucalyptus.  Some  yield  an  abundance  of  amber-colored 
gum,  which  is  in  no  respect  inferior  to  the  gum  arable ;  the  na- 
tives use  it  as  food,  and  it  is  an  article  of  commerce  between  the 
colonists  and  England.  The  tree  called  nuytsia  Jlorida  produces 
very  beautiful  orange-colored  flowers,  which,  when  perfectly  de- 
veloped, clothe  the  tree  in  such  thick  clusters  that  it  appears  like 
an  immense  bouquet,  which  in  the  woods  creates  an  effect  as 
beautiful  as  unexpected.  The  trunk  of  this  tree  also  distils  tears 
of  a  sweet  and  viscous  gum,  which  is  highly  relished  by  the 
natives. 

The  flowers  of  the  hanhsia  narifolia  are  six  inches  in  length, 
and  as  many  in  circumference ;  they  produce  a  liquor  similar  in 
taste  to  honey :  sometimes  a  single  flower  yields  a  table  spoonful. 
The  natives  suck  them  or  steep  them  in  water  in  order  to  extract 
a  sweet  beverage. 

A  tree,  from  whose  leaves  the  colonists  obtain  an  infusion  which 
has  some  analogy  to  that  which  is  extracted  from  lea,  has  been 
surnamed  the  tea  tree. 

The  zamia,  which  rises  to  a  height  of  four  or  five  feet,  and 
grows  in  sandy  soils,  bears  a  fruit  of  the  size  of  a  chestnut,  which 
is  a  poison  in  its  native  state,  but  which  prepared  by  the  savages 
becomes  an  exquisite  dish.     Before  making  use  of  these  fruits, 


OCEANICA.  647 

they  buiy  them  at  a  certain  depth,  still  contained  in  the  flower. 
The  heat  of  the  soil  causes  these  species  of  chestnuts  to  swell,  as 
if  to  germinate ;  then  eaten  raw  or  cooked  in  the  ashes,  they  fur- 
nish a  substantial  and  savory  food. 

To  complete  the  enumeration  of  the  useful  vegetables  which 
characterized  the  flora  of  this  region  before  the  arrival  of  the 
Europeans,  we  should  mention  the  sandal  wood,  one  of  the  most 
precious  productions  of  this  continent.  The  wood  of  the  trunk 
is  of  a  yellowish  color,  easily  cut,  and  diffuses  a  very  sweet  odor. 
The  Indians  and  the  Chinese,  with  whom  the  colonists  of  Swan 
River  carry  on  a  great  commerce  of  this  article,  employ  it  in  their 
most  delicate  inlaid  work,  and  burn  the  residue  of  the  dust  as 
incense. 

"We  cannot,  then,  in  contradiction  of  the  foregoing  statements, 
coincide  with  most  geographers  in  the  assertion  that  Australia 
has  been  entirely  neglected  by  nature,  in  respect  to  alimentary 
substances.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  God  has  not  failed  to  manifest 
his  beneficence  towards  his  creatures.  The  Australian  popula- 
tion have  never,  it  is  true,  enjoyed  the  grains  and  fruits  which, 
according  to  our  ideas,  seem  indispensable  to  the  maintenance  of 
life  and  prosperity ;  and  they  have,  therefore,  through  necessity, 
become  accustomed  to  subsist  upon  worms  and  other  reptiles, 
which  we  consider  revolting  to  the  touch ;  but  should  the  con- 
sumption of  worms,  lizards,  and  serpents  be  deemed  so  unnatural 
by  people  who,  like  us,  disdain  neither  oysters,  snails,  frogs,  nor 
eels  ?  There  are  many  other  alimentary  substances  which  Prov- 
idence had  seen  fit  to  add  to  the  numerous  resources  which  the 
natives  were  able  to  derive  from  the  animal  kingdom  before  the 
invasion  of  the  Europeans  had,  to  a  considerable  extent,  dimin- 
ished the  game ;  thus  a  plant  similar  to  the  batata,  but  more  wa- 
tery and  less  nourishing  ;  an  onion,  of  a  red  color,  which  they  eat 
raw,  roasted  by  the  fire,  or  mashed  and  mixed  with  gum,  which 
latter  substance  takes  the  place  of  bread,  and  of  which  they  even 
lay  up  a  store,  (an  exception  to  their  usual  improvident  habits ;) 
mushrooms,  which,  eaten  raw,  are  extremely  palatable,  and  various 
roots,  some  fruits,  &c. 

As  respects  the  grains  and  vegetables  imported  from  Europe, 
they  have  succeeded  beyond  all  expectation :  the  wine  which  is 


548  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

obtained  in  these  sandy  soils  is  of  superior  quality ;  it  is  even 
asserted  that  after  the  first  grapes  have  been  gathered,  the  stalks 
bear  others,  which  also  arrive  at  maturity  ;  the  fig  tree  produces 
fruit  three  times  successively  every  year ;  the  batatas  yield  two 
crops,  &c.  As  for  the  pastures,  they  appear  to  be  so  excellent 
and  so  favorable  to  the  multiplication  of  cattle  that  a  flock  of 
merino  sheep,  for  example,  doubles  in  number  every  three  years. 

Animals.  —  The  animals  of  Australia  are  likewise  remarkable 
for  their  originality:  they  are  not  numerous  in  species,  and 
still  less  so  in  individuals,  in  proportion  to  the  vast  extent  of  the 
country ;  not  a  single  animal  of  any  considerable  dimensions  has 
been  discovered  there;  no  horses,  oxen,  or  indigenous  sheep. 
Those  which  have  been  imported  thrive,  however,  as  we  have 
said  above,  on  the  grassy  steppes  of  these  regions. 

The  monkey  tribe  has  no  representatives ;  they  could  not  sub- 
sist in  a  country  which  is  almost  entirely  deficient  in  fruits. 
Among  the  indigenous  species  of  animals,  forty  are  found  nowhere 
else,  and  the  largest  number  are  marsupials,  which,  however,  dif- 
fer widely  from  each  other  in  respect  to  structure  and  habits,  some 
moving  by  leaps,  supporting  themselves  on  their  hind  legs  and 
tail ;  others  living  upon  trees,  and  others  sustaining  themselves 
in  the  air,  where  they  leap  from  bough  to  bough  by  spreading, 
like  an  umbrella,  the  membrane  located  under  their  body  ;  there 
are  some  which  live  in  burrows,  or  which  are  nocturnal,  &c. 

The  kangaroos  are  the  largest  and  most  remarkable  of  the  mar- 
supials of  Australia.  There  are  a  very  great  number  of  species, 
some  of  which  have  reddish  hair,  others  blue,  on  a  gray  ground  ; 
all  afford  an  excellent  flesh,  although  destitute  of  fat.  The  ordi- 
nary kangaroo  is  naturally  timid  and  inoffensive,  but  extremely 
vigilant ;  it  suffers  itself  to  be  very  easily  tamed.  It  sometimes 
attains  seven  feet  in  height  and  a  weight  of  120  pounds.  This 
animal  makes  little  use  of  its  fore  paws,  which  are  very  short, 
except  in  grazing  ;  whenever  it  wishes  to  move  quickly,  or  is  pur- 
sued, it  employs  only  its  hind  legs,  sustaining  itself  on  its  long 
and  strong  tail,  as  upon  a  spring  or  lever,  and  thus  surmounts 
considerable  spaces  by  making  enormous  bounds.  When  hard 
pressed  by  a  dog,  it  assumes  the  defensive  by  seating  itself  and 
advancing  its  hind  legs,  armed  with  sharp  claws.     The  female 


OCEANIC  A. 


549 


gives  birth  to  but  one  at  a  time;  as  soon  as  it  becomes  large 
enough,  it  issues  from  its  pouch  and  browses  on  the  grass  by  its 
mother's  side,  prompt  to  again  seek  refuge  in  her  protecting  pock- 


f'Sz^l 


Kangaroo. 

et  whenever  danger  threatens.  If  the  mother  thinks  herself  about 
to  be  overtaken,  it  is  said  that  she  sometimes  tears  her  little  one 
from  the  pouch  and  throws  it  into  the  grass,  doubtless  hoping  that 
it  will  escape.  These  peaceable  animals,  which  have  almost  en- 
tirely disappeared  in  the  vicinity  of  the  English  colonies,  still 
wander  in  companies  of  20,  30,  and  more,  in  the  interior  of  the 
countries  of  Western  Australia.  Their  skin,  when  well  dressed, 
is  highly  valued.  The  striped  kangaroo,  the  most  beautiful  of 
its  class,  is  found  only  on  the  western  coast.  The  kangaroo  rat 
is  of  the  size  of  a  small  rabbit ;  it  inhabits  the  hollows  of  trees, 
and  seizes  its  food  with  its  fore  paws,  like  the  squirrel. 

The  opossum,  or  phalanger,  is  also  one  of  the  marsupials.  It 
sleeps  by  day,  and  at  night  climbs  trees  to  feed  upon  the  leaves. 
Its  body  is  of  the  size  of  a  cat.     Its  tail,  which  is  quite  long,  is 


550  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

of  great  use  in  enabling  it  to  suspend  itself  in  difficult  passages 
until  it  has  elsewhere  obtained  a  foothold  with  its  fore  paws.  It 
is  docile  timid,  and  inoffensive,  unless  ill  used.     It  is  easily  tamed, 


Opossttm. 


plays  harmlessly,  and  evinces  a  partiality  for  bread,  sugar,  and 
especially  milk. 

The  peculiarity  of  the  flying  opossum,  or  petauriis,  is  the  fact 
that  it  flies  without  possessing  wings ;  that  is  to  say,  by  distend- 
ing the  skin  of  its  body,  it  can  sustain  itself  to  a  certain  degree 
in  the  air,  so  as  to  shoot  from  one  tree  to  another.  These  an- 
imals are  very  rare  in  "Western  Australia. 

The  dingo,  or  New  Holland  dog,  is  the  only  one  among  the 
quadrupeds  which  allies  the  animal  products  of  this  continent  to 
those  of  other  countries.  It  is  of  a  reddish  brown  color,  and 
greatly  resembles  the  fox.  It  is  a  strong  and  ferocious  animal, 
which,  when  it  attacks  sheep,  seems  to  delight  in  killing  the  great- 
est possible  number,  rather  from  a  kind  of  sanguinary  instinct 
than  to  satisfy  the  natural  cravings  of  hunger.  A  farm  is  cited, 
in  which,  in  the  earliest  times  of  the  colonization,  1200  sheep 
were  destroyed  in  three  months.  These  dogs  hunt  in  couples,  or 
troops  of  five  or  six :  they  do  not  bark,  but  howl  in  a  lugubrious 
manner.  They  display  much  cunning ;  lie  in  ambuscade  for 
sheep  or  kangaroos,  spring  upon  and  bite  them,  flee  if  they  resist, 
and  attack  them  anew  at  a  little  distance,  until  loss  of  blood  has 
enfeebled  and  left  them  defenceless.  If  they  enter  by  night  into 
the  midst  of  a  flock,  they  make  horrible  carnage  among  them ; 


OCEANIC  A.  651 

they  are  the  inveterate  enemies  of  the  European  dogs.  Although 
they  flee  at  the  sight  of  man,  and  never  lose  their  ferocious  in- 
stincts, the  natives  tame  them,  after  a  fashion,  and  make  use  of 
them  in  the  kangaroo  and  emeu  hunt. 

The  birds  of  Australia  are,  in  many  respects,  as  anomalous  as 
the  quadrupeds  and  plants  of  this  continent.  Thus,  it  produces 
white  falcons,  black  cockatoos,  (paroquets,)  and  swans ;  the  only 
ones,  ho^vever,  to  which  we  would  direct  particular  attention  in 
connection  with  Western  Australia  are  the  black  swan  and  the 
emeu.  The  former  is  one  of  the  curiosities  of  this  continent.  It 
exceeds  the  goose  in  size,  and  its  bearing  is  majestic.  It  is  easily 
tamed,  but  is  by  instinct  very  solitary :  the  borders  of  the  rivers 
where  it  dwells  are  abandoned  by  it  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  be 
frequented  by  European  colonists ;  which,  long  since,  proved  to 
be  the  case  at  Swan  River,  to  which  this  bird  had  originally  given 
its  name. 

The  emeu  is  the  largest  bird  known,  next  to  the  African  os- 
trich, to  which  family  it  belongs.  It  attains  the  height  of  a  man. 
Its  wings  are  no  larger  than  those  of  a  hen,  which  renders  it  in- 


Emeu. 


capable  of  flight.     Its  feathers  are  peculiar,  and  scarcely  cover  its 
body ;  they  are  five  or  six  inches  long,  and  at  the  height  of  two, 


552  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

the  quill  forks,  forming  two  exactly  equal  feathers.  The  eggs  are 
nearly  the  size  of  those  of  the  ostrich,  each  being  equivalent  to  a 
hen's  egg.  The  female  lays  eight  or  ten  of  them  at  a  time.  The 
best  horse  cannot  keep  pace  with  the  emeu  ;  the  swiftest  dogs  can 
only  overtake  it  with  great  difficulty,  and  even  then  they  run 
much  risk  of  being  killed  with  a  stroke  of  its  claw.  These  birds 
wander  in  troops  of  15  or  20  in  the  deserted  plains  of  the  inte- 
rior ;  they  abound  especially  in  Western  Australia,  where  they 
are  eagerly  pursued  on  account  of  their  flesh,  which  has  almost 
the  consistency  of  beef.  The  emeu  is  susceptible  of  being  so 
thoroughly  tamed  as  to  become  the  constant  companion  of  its 
master. 

The  Australian  population  has  been  greatly  calumniated  by 
naturalists  and  certain  travellers.  Attributing  to  the  entire  race 
the  abject  features,  the  excessive  leanness,  and  the  profound  deg- 
radation of  those  among  these  savages  whom  the  violence  or 
vices  of  the  colonists  had  exasperated  or  deplorably  corrupted, 
they  have  given  us  a  disgusting  portrait  of  the  Australians,  which 
would  lead  us  to  regard  them  as  beings  at  once  stupid  and  de- 
praved. Without  wishing  to  call  in  question  the  numerous  traits 
of  degradation  and  barbarity  which  have  been  alleged  against 
them  by  certain  writers,  we  prefer  to  give  credence  to  the  testi- 
mony of  men  who,  like  the  travellers  M.  Eyre  and  Strzelecki, 
Major  Mitchell,  or  Bishop  Salvado,  have  resided  several  years 
in  the  midst  of  the  natives,  and  have  observed  them  in  their  or- 
dinary life  and  free  from  contact  with  the  Europeans. 

The  Australian,  or  Endamene,  when  he  has  not  been  disfigured 
or  emaciated  by  excessive  privations,  is  a  man  of  fine,  strong,  and 
muscular  figure,  with  a  broad  and  deep  chest,  and  a  dignified  car- 
riage. Most  of  the  race  are  copper-colored  rather  than  deep 
black ;  the  women  often  have  cheeks  of  vermilion  color.  Their 
skull  has  not  a  much  sharper  facial  angle  than  that  of  the  whites, 
but  their  nose  is  more  or  less  flat,  their  lips  often  thick,  their  eyes 
deep-set,  black,  and  expressive.  Many  travellers  have  ascribed  to 
them  crispy  hair,  because  it  is  always  bristling  and  besmeared 
with  grease  or  coloring  clay ;  it  would  naturally,  however,  be 
long,  smooth,  black  or  light  colored,  and  their  beard  quite  thick. 
They  have  very  beautiful  teeth.    Even  the  most  robust  and  well 


OCEANICA. 


553 


built  are  not  fat ;  in  certain  districts  they  have  no  calves  to  their 
legs,  but  their  heels  are  like  ours,  and  their  hands  and  feet  small 
and  well  moulded.  The  women  are  often,  also,  very  well  formed, 
and  many  of  them  only  differ  from  the  Europeans  in  color. 
They  would  have  a  very  fine  head  of  hair  if  one  of  their  cus- 
toms did  not  oblige  them  to  keep  it  cut  a  little  above  the  shoulders. 
With  regard  to  their  intellectual  faculties,  there  is  every  prob- 
ability that  if  carefully  cultivated  they  would  repay  whatever 
efforts  were  made  to  instruct  them,  whether  in  the  arts  or  sci- 
ences. If  but  little  has  yet  been  accomplished  in  this  respect,  it 
is  because  suitable  attempts  have  not  been  made. 


Native  Australian. 

The  Australians  are  exceedingly  skilful  in  the  imitation  of  all 
kinds  of  arts ;  many  know  how  to  read  and  write,  and  prove 
themselves  intelligent  workmen.  In  their  independent  existence 
they  are  active,  bold,  cunning,  and  full  of  sagacity.  They  have 
not  their  equals  in  acuteness  of  sight  and  hearing,  in  discovering 
the  traces  of  men  or  animals,  or  ascertaining  the  origin  and  dis- 
tance of  a  sound. 

As  respects  the  sentiments,  it  appears  that  the  Australians,  who 

are  not  yet  contaminated  or  irritated  by  contact  with  the  whites, 

are  hospitable,  and  neither  destitute  of  benevolence  nor  sensibility. 

"  I  have  seen  parents,"  says  M.  Eyre,  "  tenderly  embracing  and 

47 


654:  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

shedding  tears  over  the  children  whom  they  beheld  after  a  long 
separation.'*  "  I  was  a  witness,"  says  Captain  Stokes,  "  in  the 
family  of  a  native,  of  a  still  more  touching  scene.  The  wife  of  this 
native  had  had  the  misfortune  to  lose  her  child.  Inconsolable  for 
his  death,  she  had  carefully  preserved  his  little  bones,  and  carried 
them  every  where  with  her.  When  her  grief  became  overpower* 
ing,  she  would  unite  all  these  bones  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form 
a  skeleton,  after  which  she  would  bathe  it  in  her  tears.  Doubtless 
then  her  imagination  invested  these  inanimate  remains  with  the 
image  of  life  ;  she  beheld  the  eyes  of  her  child  regarding  her,  his 
mouth  smiling  upon  her,  his  tiny  arms  outstretched,  and  her  an- 
guish was  thus  beguiled  during  a  few  short  hours." 

The  Australians  are  likewise  excellent  fathers,  and  yet,  through 
pride  and  roughness  of  manners,  they  manifest  no  affection  for 
the  mothers  of  their  children.  The  women  would  never  presume 
to  eat  with  their  husbands  ;  to  the  former  are  assigned  the  se- 
verest labors,  and  they  are  often  abused.  Each  man  may  have 
many  wives,  although  he  generally  has  but  one.  It  may  thence 
very  naturally  be  inferred  that  the  birth  of  boys  only  is  an  occa- 
sion of  joy  to  the  family.  It  is  indeed  the  fate  of  the  third  daugh- 
ter to  perish  by  the  hand  of  her  mother,  unless  adopted  by  some 
other  woman.  The  children  are  much  attached  to  their  aged 
parents.  Their  wars  are  attended  with  little  bloodshed ;  if  the 
murder  of  a  member  of  the  family  requires  expiation  by  blood,  it 
does  not  necessarily  involve  death.  They  entertain  such  a  re- 
spect for  the  bones  of  their  own  people,  that  one  colonist  is  cited 
who  completely  screened  his  house  from  their  attacks,  by  burying 
before  his  threshold  the  bones  of  some  of  their  kindred,  slain  in  a 
recent  combat.  No  locality  sufficing  to  furnish  them  with  the 
means  of  subsistence  during  the  whole  year,  they  are  necessarily 
compelled  to  a  nomadic  life.  However,  the  Benedictine  monks  of 
New  Nursie  (north  of  Perth,  capital  of  the  colony)  seem  to  have 
succeeded  in  initiating  a  considerable  number  of  natives  into  the 
life  of  the  settler  and  the  agriculturist.  Notwithstanding  the 
accounts  of  different  writers,  it  appears  that,  in  the  districts  of 
which  they  have  complete  possession,  the  Australians  enjoy 
abundant  resources ;  for  besides  a  profusion  of  vegetables  and  use- 
ful roots,  nature  supplies  them  with  a  multitude  of  animals  — 


OCEANICA.  555 

raollusks  and  fish,  fresh  water  tortoises,  frogs,  rats,  mice,  lizards, 
serpents,  grubs,  white  ants,  birds'  eggs,  kangaroos,  squirrels,  pha- 
langers,  wild  dogs,  emeus,  ducks,  geese,  swans,  and  pelicans.  The 
nets,  baskets,  boats,  and  weapons,  of  which  they  make  use,  give 
evidence  that  they  are  not  destitute  of  ingenuity  and  skill.  They 
have  been  accused  of  cannibalism ;  but  if  this  custom  really  exists, 
it  springs  rather  from  superstitious  ideas  than  from  an  insufficien- 
cy of  food. 

The  government  seems  to  be  entirely  patriarchal.  Each  fam- 
ily is  independent,  and  governed  by  its  head ;  there  are  no  chiefs 
of  tribes  nor  kings.  Their  laws  are  steadfast  and  respected  tra- 
ditions ;  thus  every  old  man  is  authorized  to  inflict  death  upon  a 
man  who  marries  before  thirty  years  of  age  ;  each  individual  has 
territories  of  his  own,  upon  which  he  can  hunt  and  collect  gums 
and  roots,  and  his  right  is  respected  as  sacred,  (except  by  the 
Europeans.)  They  reckon  by  seasons  and  moons,  and  are  slightly 
skilled  in  taking  astronomical  observations.  Their  arithmetic 
does  not  exceed  the  figure  3,  but  they  are  able  to  couple  and 
combine  these  numbers  in  such  a  manner  as  to  suffice  for  their 
wants.  Their  language  contains  nothing  harsh,  guttural,  hissing, 
or  disagreeable ;  all  their  dialects  evidently  proceed  from  the 
same  stock.  They  are  very  fond  of  dancing  and  music,  and  often 
convoke  all  the  savages  of  the  surrounding  country  to  great  dances, 
to  which  the  women  are  never  admitted  except  as  spectators. 

Little  is  known  of  their  religion.  They  worship  no  divinity. 
They  entertain,  however,  an  idea  of  a  Being  who  has  created  aU 
things ;  and  they  also  believe  in  the  existence  of  an  evil  spirit, 
superior  to  man,  the  author  of  storms  and  all  scourges,  who  causes 
sickness  or  death,  and  against  whom  they  have  recourse  to  their 
physicians  or  sorcerers,  whom  they  believe  capable  of  visiting 
death  upon  a  man  even  at  a  great  distance.  They  moreover  re- 
gard the  moon  as  a  malicious  being,  whilst  the  sun,  its  companion, 
is  considered  the  friend  of  the  savages.  They  believe  that  the 
soul  is  immortal,  and  that  at  the  death  of  one  of  their  number  it 
passes  into  another  body,  or  else  that  it  flits  from  tree  to  tree,  at 
the  same  time  singing  plaintively.  Christian  missionaries  have 
as  yet  had  very  little  success  among  them.  The  European  pop- 
ulation is  still  inconsiderable,  this  colony  of  Swan  Kiver  being 


556  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

more  recent,  and  having  up  to  the  present  time  attracted  muct 
less  attention  than  others,  from  its  deficiency  in  gold  mines.  In 
1849  it  lacked  laborers,  and  did  not  even  produce  grain  enough 
for  its  own  consumption ;  for  this  reason,  at  the  close  of  that  year, 
and  at  the  petition  of  the  inhabitants,  it  was  declared  a  peniten- 
tiary colony,  and  in  July,  1850,  arrived  the  first  convicts,  or  con- 
demned criminals,  who  were  sentenced,  in  expiation  of  their 
crimes,  to  cultivate,  during  a  certain  period,  the  lands  of  the  col- 
onists, with  the  prospect  of  being  liberated  before  the  expiration 
of  their  penalty,  if  their  conduct  proved  satisfactory,  and  of  after- 
wards having  it  in  their  power  to  establish  themselves  advanta- 
geously in  a  country  which  requires  only  laborers. 

Adelaide  Colony,  or  Southern  Australia.  —  This 
portion  of  the  Australian  continent,  which  is  too  little  known  to 
enable  us  to  describe  it  minutely,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
illimitable  deserts,  on  the  south  by  a  sea  which  abounds  in  excel- 
lent harbors,  among  others  the  Gulfs  of  Spencer  and  St.  Vincent, 
between  which  projects  the  York  peninsula.  It  has  no  natural 
boundaries  except  on  the  side  towards  the  sea,  those  of  the  land 
side  being  at  right  angles,  and  forming  a  vast  parallelogram.  It 
has  already  been  subdivided  into  eleven  counties. 

The  climate  is  extremely  salubrious,  the  sky  habitually  serene 
except  during  a  few  weeks  in  winter  and  as  many  in  summer. 
Very  hot  winds  are,  however,  experienced  in  the  plains  during  the 
latter  season ;  they  proceed  from  the  north,  from  the  deserts  of 
the  interior,  and  although  they  only  blow  a  few  hours,  they  cause 
considerable  damage  among  plants.  Although  the  seasons  are  in 
this  country,  as  throughout  Australia,  the  reverse  of  ours,  the 
phenomenon  of  the  austral  aurora,  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
north  pole,  is  also  observed  there. 

Minerals.  —  As  we  have  already  stated,  these  are  essentially 
the  precious  copper  of  Burra-Burra ;  rich  mines  of  lead,  mixed 
with  silver ;  and  gold  which  has  been  discovered  in  some  places. 

The  vegetables  and  animals  do  not  differ  materially  from  those 
enumerated  in  the  preceding  article.  The  land  around  Adelaide 
(the  capital  of  the  colony,  two  leagues  east  of  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Vincent)  is  excellent,  and  although,  in  the  interior,  barren  wastes 
are  here  and  there  encountered,  this  is  a  circumstance  of  but  lit- 


OCEANICA.  557 

tie  weight  in  comparison  with  the  rich  natural  prairies  in  which 
thousands  of  cattle  find  their  subsistence.  Thus  in  nine  years 
(from  1838  to  1847)  the  bovine  species  increased  fivefold,  from 
7500  to  38,000  head,  and  sheep  from  28,000  to  1,000,000.  All 
kinds  of  cereals  and  fruits  are  raised  in  abundance,  and  of  supe- 
rior quality  —  barley,  oats,  Indian  com,  batatas,  &c.  The  grain 
has  attained  the  highest  prices  in  the  English  markets,  and  in 
1847  it  was  exported  to  a  distance,  to  the  colony  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  the  Island  of  Mauritius,  Swan  River  Colony, 
&c.  The  proprietors  have  often  been  compelled,  from  the  want 
of  reapers,  to  abandon  their  grain  as  fodder  for  their  cattle, 
which  even  incited  one  of  their  number  to  the  invention  of  a 
machine  which  reaps,  threshes,  and  winnows  the  grain,  and  with 
the  aid  of  two  horses  and  two  men,  yields  15  bushels  of  wheat 
per  hour. 

The  native  population  has  suffered  less  at  the  hands  of  the 
European  colonists  than  in  other  districts.  The  gold  discovery, 
which  of  late  years  has  drawn  the  white  population  in  a  mass  to 
the  mining  quarters,  by  causing  the  farms  to  be  deserted,  has  at 
least  had  the  good  result  of  developing  the  capacities  of  these 
poor  Australians,  hitherto  held  in  such  contempt,  proving  them 
capable  of  becoming  excellent  shepherds,  sheep  washers  or  shear- 
ers, robust  laborers  or  reapers.  In  the  model  farm  at  Port  Lin- 
coln, established  in  behalf  of  the  savages,  the  natives  execute  the 
clearings  and  the  labor  of  12  acres  of  land,  and  conduct  thousands 
of  sheep  to  pasture  without  any  other  superintendence  than  that 
of  two  missionaries  of  the  English  church.  They  prove  them- 
selves equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the  Europeans  in  many  occupations 
of  field  life.  The  latter,  by  interesting  them  personally  in  culti- 
vation, and  abiding  faithfully  by  the  promises  which  have  been 
made  to  them,  have  withheld  them  from  the  temptation  usually 
so  irresistible  to  the  savages,  to  return  after  a  few  months  to  the 
forest  life.  Why  were  not  these  generous  and  charitable  pro- 
ceedings sooner  put  in  practice  ? 

Victoria,   Australia    Happy,    or    Establishment    op 

Port  Philip.  —  This  establishment  has  for  its  boundaries  at 

the  west  the  southern  branch  of  the  Pyrenees,  at  the  north  the 

River  Murray,  and  at  the  east  an  imaginary  line  extending  from 

47* 


658  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

Mount  Kosciusko  to  Cape  Howe,  at  the  south-east  of  the  conti- 
nent. Its  extent  is  equal  to  that  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
united.  It  has  been  subdivided  into  23  counties,  of  which  Mel- 
bourne  is  the  capital. 

The  climate  is  healthful  and  temperate,  and  the  transition  from 
one  season  to  another  very  perceptible.  The  air  is  remarkably 
dry,  insomuch  that  one  may  sleep  in  the  open  air  during  a  great 
part  of  the  year.  As  in  Southern  Australia,  the  north  winds, 
which  are  cold  in  Europe,  are  scorching  in  Australia  Happy,  and 
in  the  same  proportion,  those  from  the  south  which  are  hot  in 
Europe  are  the  reverse  in  these  regions. 

Gold  is  the  only  mineral  production ;  but  in  no  other  part  of 
the  world  has  it  been  discovered  in  such  quantities,  as  we  have 
previously  had  occasion  to  remark. 

Vegetables  and  animals  are  for  the  most  part  the  same  as  those 
of  the  preceding  countries.  The  pastures  are  superb,  and  no- 
where, perhaps,  have  cattle  multiplied  so  rapidly.  The  number 
of  horses,  among  others,  is  so  considerable  that  every  person  in 
easy  circumstances  possesses  carriages  and  saddle  horses.  Agri- 
culture has  not  made  proportionate  progress,  the  mines  having 
caused  it  to  be  neglected. 

The  population,  which  had  already  almost  tripled  within  a 
period  of  five  years,  attained  in  1851  the  sum  total  of  95,000 
souls ;  two  years  after  (November,  1853)  it  numbered  226,000. 
This  extraordinary  increase  was  owing  to  the  discovery  of  the  gold, 
which  attracted  emigrants  into  this  colony  from  all  countries,  far 
and  near.  When  apprised  of  the  rich  discoveries  made  at  Mount 
Alexander,  merchants  and  clerks,  magistrates  and  chents,  quitted 
every  thing  to  hasten  to  the  mines  ;  schools  were  closed  for  want 
of  masters  ;  vessels  in  the  roads  were  abandoned  by  their  crews  ; 
ships  loaded  with  provisions  could  not  disembark  their  merchan- 
dise, and  the  women,  being  absolutely  deserted,  were  obliged  to 
congregate  together  for  the  protection  of  their  houses ;  the  gov- 
ernor himself  was  compelled  to  groom  his  own  horse. 

New  South  Wales.  —  This  colony,  the  most  ancient  and 
celebrated  of  the  English  establishments  on  the  Australian  conti- 
nent, embraces  all  the  eastern  coast,  and  even  extends  very  far 
into  the  countries  of  the  interior.     The  different  parts  of  this  vast 


OCEANICA.  659 

territory  naturally  vary  widely  in  products  and  aspect.  At  the 
east  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  rounded  and  verdant  hills  form  an 
undulating  and  wooded  country,  which  descends  by  degrees  to  the 
coast,  and  constitutes  the  principal  portion  of  the  Australian  colo- 
nies. At  the  west  of  these  mountains,  the  country  inclines  to- 
wards perfectly  open  plains  of  a  somewhat  uneven  surface,  trav- 
ersed by  the  usually  dry  bed  of  a  great  number  of  rivers. 

The  aspect  of  this  country  presents  a  general  character  of 
aridity,  or  at  least  of  drought,  which  is  truly  saddening  to  the 
glance.  The  soil,  over  three  quarters  of  the  surface  of  the  terri- 
tory held  by  the  English  government,  is  composed  almost  entirely 
of  beds  of  stones,  on  which  no  good  vegetable  earth  is  formed,  and 
which  is  consequently  ill  adapted  to  agriculture.  Grass  only,  and 
certain  trees  peculiar  to  this  country,  are  wonderfully  developed 
there.  Thus  the  principal  wealth  of  these  regions,  as  of  the 
pampas  of  La  Plata,  consists  in  the  produce  of  their  cattle.  The 
grassy  plains  of  the  interior,  especially  when  well  watered  by  the 
rains,  are  clothed  with  abundant  grass,  which  rises  as  high  as  the 
body  of  a  horse ;  but  when  the  dry  season  arrives,  nothing  remains 
but  a  scorched  and  dusty  soil,  where  not  a  single  verdant  spot 
greets  the  eye. 

The  climate  is  perfectly  salubrious,  and  the  seasons  the  reverse 
of  ours.  The  winter  is  more  severe  than  the  latitude  would  seem 
to  indicate ;  oranges  and  lemons  can,  however,  even  then  be 
gathered  from  the  trees.  The  autumn  is  characterized  by  abun- 
dant rains.  In  summer  the  heat  is  oppressive  during  the  day, 
and  occasionally  certain  very  hot  winds  blow  from  the  north-west, 
(proceeding  from  the  deserts  of  the  interior,)  which  scorch  the 
grass  and  tender  plants ;  the  mornings  and  evenings  are  mild  and 
agreeable,  being  refreshed  by  the  night  dews  ;  but  these  dews  do 
not  sufficiently  moisten  the  earth.  Long  months  elapse  without  a 
single  drop  of  rain.  Then  the  plants,  the  hope  of  the  husband- 
men, droop  ;  impetuous  and  terrible  hurricanes  burst  forth,  which, 
like  the  simoom,  occasion  sand  spouts,  overthrow  houses,  and  up- 
root trees.  The  woods  become  so  dry  that  the  smallest  electrical 
spark  or  the  least  friction  ignites  them,  and  as  in  the  prairies  of 
North  America,  clouds  of  smoke  may  be  seen  at  a  distance,  curl- 
ing upward  from  the  fire,  which  ravages  vast  spaces.     One  after 


S&)^  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

another,  the  rivers  dry  up,  henceforth  presenting  only  in  spots,  and 
at  wide  intervals,  ponds  of  green  and  yellowish  water,  around 
which  the  thirsty  cattle  flock  —  sink  in  the  damp  mud,  and  often 
perish  by  thousands,  without  having  succeeded  in  reachmg  the 
water  itself. 

The  minerals  are  pipe  clay  of  superior  quality ;  alum  in  great 
masses  ;  salt  springs  ;  ferruginous  sand,  (iron  stone,)  in  consider- 
able quantities  ;  the  rich  gold  mines  of  Mount  Ophir,  and  others  ; 
abundant  deposits  of  fossil  coal,  especially  on  the  banks  of  the 
Hunter  River,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city  of  Newcastle. 
The  coal  produced,  last  year,  by  13  of  these  mines  was  valued  at 
about  $400,000. 

Vegetables.  —  The  virgin  forests  of  Australia  sometimes  present 
the  imposing  aspect  of  those  of  America,  but  with  other  hues,  and 
a  vegetation  not  elsewhere  met  with.  They  are  often  obstructed 
by  a  multitude  of  parasitic  and  climbing  plants,  through  which 
one  can  only  penetrate  by  the  aid  of  a  hatchet.  Some  of  these 
plants,  like  the  nettle,  conceal  beneath  smiling  flowers  a  sharp 
and  venomous  thorn,  capable  of  causing  the  death  of  horses  which 
are  so  unfortunate  as  to  be  pierced  by  them.  The  fern  poises  its 
light  branches  like  a  waving  plume  at  a  height  of  15  feet ;  else- 
where are  nettles  which  rise  still  higher;  gigantic  reeds  form 
forests  in  the  marshes,  whilst  on  the  coasts,  inundated  by  the  salt 
water,  there  grows  a  tree,  to  the  trunk  and  branches  of  which 
excellent  oysters  become  attached,  which  may  be  gathered  from 
it  as  if  they  were  a  natural  fruit. 

The  forests  of  gum  trees,  on  the  contrary,  with  their  tall  and 
straight  trunks,  are  rarely  encumbered  by  bushes,  so  that  one  can 
gallop  through  the  woods  in  every  direction.  By  a  singular 
phenomenon,  these  trees,  which  constantly  retain  their  pale  and 
slender  leaves,  annually  shed  their  bark,  in  the  month  of  March. 
This  bark  then  becomes  detached  in  strips,  unfurls  itself  like 
the  divisions  of  a  parasol,  floats  in  long  fillets  over  the  trunk  and 
branches,  and  then  dries  up  and  turns  to  dust.  All  these  trees, 
stripped  of  their  summer  robe,  then  present  a  singular  tint  of  a 
pale  blue  or  deep  yellow  ;  they  gradually  array  themselves  in  a 
new  vesture,  and  in  autumn  assume  a  gray  mantle,  as  if  taking 
precautions  against  the  winter. 


OCEANICA.  561 

New  South  "Wales  contains  more  than  a  hundred  species  of 
leafless  acacias^  which  furnish  a  gum  equal,  at  least,  to  the  purest 
gum  arabic.  A  species  of  eucalyptus  there  met  with  yields 
manna,  a  crystalline  and  savory  substance,  similar  in  taste  to  a 
mixture  of  sugar  and  almonds ;  it  is  collected  on  the  leaves  which 
distil  it,  or  on  the  ground.  The  white  cedar  abounds,  as  also  the 
red  or  Australian  cedar,  from  which  reddish,  light,  and  durable 
planks  are  obtained  ;  the  araucaria,  or  Norfolk  pine,  a  very 
large  tree  of  the  north-eastern  coast,  which  furnishes  excellent 
timber,  and  whose  fruits  (contained  in  cones)  are  so  highly  ap- 
preciated by  the  natives  that  they  often  beat  the  tree  in  order  that 
none  may  escape  them ;  the  casuarina,  or  marsh  oak,  with  its 
pendent  and  singularly  disposed  branches,  which  also  produces 
good  building  wood,  &c.  The  kangaroo  grass  covers,  far  and 
wide,  the  plains  of  the  interior. 

But  although  the  trees  of  Australia  are  generally  slender,  dry, 
and  destitute  of  broad  leaves,  there  are  nevertheless  exceptions  to 
this  rule.  At  the  north-east  of  the  eastern  coast,  in  certain  val- 
leys whose  soil  is  less  arid,  and  whose  freshness  is  constantly 
maintained  by  the  sea  breezes,  flourishes  a  vigorous  and  magnifi- 
cent vegetation.  Majestic  trees,  with  thick  foliage,  form  veritable 
forests,  and  beneath  their  lofty  tops  are  tufted  groves,  where  the 
palm  tree  and  other  tropical  plants  intermingle  in  all  their  luxu- 
riance. 

The  vegetables  imported  from  Europe  have  succeeded  won- 
derfully ;  all  the  fruit  trees,  figs,  almonds,  lemons,  &;c.,  grow  in 
the  open  air,  in  the  vicinity  of  Sydney,  the  capital.  New  Wales 
promises  to  become  a  wine-growing  country:  in  1852  it  exported 
to  London  a  considerable  quantity  of  wine  ;  plants  from  Malaga 
and  Xeres  flourish  especially.  In  1851  it  was  estimated  that 
more  than  100,000  acres  were  planted  with  cereals  of  all  kinds, 
especially  wheat  and  maize.  Since  that  period,  the  influx  of 
emigrants  has  greatly  augmented  the  value  of  the  agricultural 
products. 

Animals.  —  The  animal  kingdom  exhibits  in  New  South 
"Wales  the  same  peculiarities  which  prevail  throughout  Australia. 
Besides  the  kangaroos  and  other  marsupials  of  which  we  have 
already  spoken,  the  emeus,  the  dingo,  dog,  &c..  New  "Wales 


662  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

produces  some  very  singular  edentata  peculiar  to  itself,  two  spe- 
cies especially,  the  ornithorhynchus,  and  the  echidna,  which  seem 
to  form  a  link  between  the  edentata  and  the  marsupials.  The 
ornithorhjnchus  is  an  animal  which  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the 


OrnithorJiynchtis. 

quadruped,  the  bird,  and  the  fish.  It  is  about  a  foot  and  a  half 
in  length,  with  the  thick  fur  of  a  mole  or  water  rat,  and  has  short 
and  hairy  legs,  its  feet  being  provided  with  a  membrane,  and  its 
hinder  ones  with  claws.  Its  head,  similar  to  that  of  a  quadruped, 
terminates  in  the  beak  of  a  duck,  in  which  a  masticating  appara- 
tus takes  the  place  of  teeth,  and  suffices  for  grinding  the  insects 
upon  which  it  subsists.  It  dwells  on  the  borders  of  rivers,  in 
burrows  with  two  openings,  one  above  and  the  other  below  the 
level  of  the  water.  It  preys  upon  aquatic  insects,  small  fish,  or 
seeds  which  it  finds  in  the  mire.  It  prefers  the  overgrown  banks, 
where  are  found  thick  tufts  of  aquatic  plants.  At  the  slightest 
alarm  it  plunges  into  the  river ;  and  in  order  to  kill  it  one  must 
take  aim  at  the  moment  when  the  necessity  of  breathing  compels 
it  to  lift  its  head  above  water.  All  that  has  been  related  concern- 
ing the  eggs  that  it  lays  appears  to  be  fabulous.  The  natives 
are  very  fond  of  the  flesh  of  the  ornithorhynchus  ;  but  these  sin- 
gular animals  are  now  rarely  encountered,  except  at  the  western 
base  of  the  Blue  Mountains. 

The  echidna,  or  porcupine  anteater,  resembles  the  ornithorhyn- 
chus in  its  general  structure,  but  differs  from  it  entirely  in  appear- 
ance, being  covered  with  quills  like  a  porcupine.  It  is  a  toothless 
animal,  which  lives  in  burrows,  and  subsists  on  ants  in  summer, 
but  sleeps  during  the  winter.  It  has,  like  the  anteater,  a  long 
muzzle  terminating  in  a  small  species  of  bill ;  it  seizes  and  retains 
insects  with  its  tongue,  which  is  long  and  very  elastic  ;  it  is  also 


OCEANICA. 


563 


armed  with  strong  claws,  of  which  it  makes  use  in  speedily  dig- 
ging itself  a  burrow. 


Porcupine  Anteater. 

New  South  Wales  presents  many  rare  species  of  birds.  The 
menura  superha,  or  lyre  bird,  so  called  on  account  of  its  tail  in  the 
form  of  a  lyre,  variegated  with  the  most  beautiful  colors, — orange 


Lyre  Bird. 

and  silver,  —  is  the  only  bird  which  in  its  character  approaches 
the  gallinaceous  family.  Parrots  of  all  colors,  among  others 
black,  and  all  living  in  companies,  perpetrate  great  ravages  in  the 
planted  fields,  during  the  execution  of  which  they  take  the  pre- 
caution to  station  sentinels  at  certain  distances,  in  all  directions, 
to  give  notice  of  the  approach  of  an  enemy.  The  hell  Urd  creates 
in  the  air  a  vibration  like  that  of  a  bell  —  a  signal  hailed  with  joy 


564  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

by  thirsty  travellers,  for  it  invariably  announces  the  vicinity  of  a 
spring.  The  mocking  bird,  which  passes  its  time  in  counterfeit- 
ing the  cries  of  all  the  rest,  is  spared  by  the  hunters  (although  it 
often  deceives  them)  on  account  of  the  desperate  war  which  it 
wages  against  reptiles. 

When  night  veils  the  Australian  continent,  other  sounds  of  life 
succeed  those  of  day.  This  is  the  hour  when  the  cuckoo,  idly 
sleeping  during  the  day,  awakens  to  utter  its  two  unvarying  mon- 
osyllables. This  is  likewise  the  hour  when  the  harsh  cry  of  the 
bird,  called  by  the  English  coach  whip,  resounds  like  the  crack- 
ing of  a  whip,  and  when  the  mewing  of  the  cat  bird  is  heard, 
which  resembles  the  sobbing  of  a  child.  At  this  hour,  also,  the 
flying  squirrels  precipitate  themselves  in  famished  bands  upon 
the  flowering  trees,  and  like  the  sparks  of  a  rocket,  fireflies  of 
various  species  glitter  in  the  open  space. 

But  the  most  singular  bird,  perhaps,  is  the  bower  bird,  (or 
cradle  bird,)  so  called  on  account  of  the  leafy  bower  which  it 
constructs  with  much  labor  and  skill,  to  serve  it  as  a  place  of 
recreation  and  assembly.  This  bird,  which  subsists  on  berries, 
insects,  wild  figs,  and  wheat,  first  interlaces  branches  of  cedars, 
or  other  trees,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  species  of  platform  ; 
then  above,  and  adhering  to  it,  a  kind  of  cradle  of  smaller  and 
more  flexible  branches  is  arranged  so  as  to  form  a  hollow,  the  in- 
terior of  which  is  carpeted  with  brilliant  feathers,  and  all  kinds 
of  curious  or  gaudy-colored  objects,  which  attract  the  fancy  of  the 
bower  bird.  In  these  cradles,  which  last  several  years,  it  has 
been  observed  that  a  certain  number  of  these  birds  assemble  and 
engage  in  all  kinds  of  sportSj  and  the  cradle  is  rarely  deserted. 

The  reptiles  and  insects  are  remarkable  in  more  than  one  re- 
spect. Lizards  may  be  seen  there  of  four  feet  in  length,  whose 
flesh,  when  roasted,  acquires  an  excellent  flavor :  the  prickly  liz- 
ard, sumamed  by  the  colonists  devil  of  the  woods,  owes  its  name 
to  the  formidable  appearance  which  is  imparted  to  it  by  its  mot- 
ley colors,  and  the  prickles  with  which  its  whole  body  is  bristling; 
and  yet  it  is  incapable  of  doing  injury,  even  to  him  who  takes  it 
in  his  hands.  The  chlamydosaure,  or  mantled  lizard,  received 
its  name  from  an  enormous  collar  of  thin  skin,  covered  with 
scales,  and  denticulated  like  a  saw,  by  means  of  which  the  animal 


OCEANIC  A.  665 

can  shoot  fearlessly  from  bough  to  bough  in  the  pursuit  of  insects, 
for  if  it  chances  to  fall,  the  air  dilates  its  mantle  like  an  umbrella, 
and  it  alights  gently  on  the  ground  without  violent  shock. 


Mantled  Lizard. 

The  serpents  are  undoubtedly  very  venomous,  but  make  com- 
paratively few  victims.  They  usually  frequent  certain  peculiar 
localities,  where  too  much  precaution  cannot  be  taken  in  approach- 
ing the  thickets,  or  seating  one's  self  upon  the  trunk  of  a  tree. 
The  smallest  are  the  most  dangerous.  The  deaf  viper,  which  is 
only  a  few  inches  long,  and  which,  on  account  of  its  deafness,  does 
not  flee  from  man,  is  especially  formidable.  The  diamond  snake 
attains  to  15  feet ;  the  natives  eat  those  which  they  have  killed, 
and  which  they  are  assured  have  not  bitten  and  consequently 
poisoned  themselves.  It  is  usually  related  of  the  birds  of  Aus- 
tralia that  they  cry,  and  do  not  sing,  likewise  that  the  flowers  are 
magnificent  in  color,  but  destitute  of  perfume.  These  assertions, 
which  are  true  with  regard  to  the  greatest  number  of  species,  are 
not,  however,  without  exceptions.  On  the  other  hand,  the  frogs^ 
never  croak,  but  sing  in  a  truly  harmonious  and  musical  manner. 
The  bees  deposit  their  honey  in  the  hollows  of  trees,  and  it  is 
highly  relished  by  the  natives,  although  it  is  acidulated  rather 
than  sweet.  The  locusts  are  a  serious  scourge,  especially  where 
the  cultivation  of  grain  is  most  successful.  The  caterpillars  are 
48 


566  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

another  scourge  of  the  fields,  appearing  suddenly,  and  sometimes 
in  inconceivable  numbers.  The  carnivorous  fly,  as  large  as  a 
bee,  diffuses  over  the  wounds  of  men  and  animals,  and  even  over 
cooked  meat  and  woollen  fabrics,  large  quantities  of  eggs,  which 
are  almost  immediately  transformed  into  worms ;  often  in  the 
morning  a  blanket  is  found  to  be  full  of  them ;  they  are  very 
rarely  seen  in  the  winter  season.  The  insects  which  are  called 
sand  flies,  because  they  are  no  larger  than  a  grain  of  sand,  ap- 
pear, on  the  contrary,  in  the  winter  months,  when  the  pernicious 
sirocco  wind  blows  almost  imperceptibly;  they  so  affect  the 
nose  and  eyes  as  sometimes  to  compel  the  husbandmen  to 
desist  from  their  labors.  These  swarms  often  resemble  a  cloud ; 
a  light  breeze  is  sufficient  to  dissipate  them.  The  gadflies  do 
much  mischief  among  the  cattle,  and  the  gnats  give  rise  to  a 
disagreeable  inflammation  among  the  newly-arrived  colonists. 
We  have  previously  spoken  of  the  large  yellow  worms,  called 
grubs,  which  subsist  on  the  decayed  trunk  of  the  xanthorrhea, 
and  which  constitute  one  of  the  most  habitual  and  esteemed  dishes 
of  the  natives.  Eaten  alive,  they  have  somewhat  the  resinous 
flavor  of  the  plant ;  when  cooked,  they  possess  that  of  the  roasted 
chestnut.  Similar  worms  are  found  in  the  roots  of  certain  acacias 
and  some  species  of  eucalyptus. 

A  monstrous  ant,  about  two  inches  long,  and  of  a  reddish  color, 
surnamed  by  the  colonists  ant  lion,  inflicts  a  pain  so  acute  that 
one  would  imagine  himself  bitten  by  a  serpent.  The  ants  of 
medium  size  form  such  beaten  paths  that  they  might  be  supposed 
to  have  been  worn  by  goats.  There  are  white  ants,  whose  dwell- 
ings, from  4  to  5  feet  in  height,  and  from  8  to  10  in  circumfer- 
ence, can  resist,  it  is  said,  the  weight  of  a  wagon.  As  many  as 
80  of  these  constructions  have  been  counted  on  one  square  mile. 
These  mischievous  creatures  devour  every  species  of  vegetables, 
even  the  hardest  wood,  and  endanger  the  existence  of  all  kinds 
of  constructions. 

'  Population.  —  The  aboriginal  population  have  almost  entirely 
disappeared  at  the  east  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  except  in  the 
north-eastern  portion.  More  ill  used  than  elsewhere  by  the  col- 
onists, and  by  the  fugitive  convicts,  deprived  of  their  lands,  and 
reduced  to  profound  misery,  brutalized  by  drunkenness,  and  cor- 


OCEANICA.  567 

rupted  by  the  vices  communicated  to  them  by  the  wretches  whom 
the  English  society  has  diffused  in  their  midst,  these  unfortunate 
remnants  of  once  strong  and  vigorous  tribes  seem  to  be  the  most 
debased  of  the  human  race,  and  must  continue  to  inspire  the  phi- 
lanthropist with  a  lively  compassion  until  they  have  completely 
disappeared.  Those  of  the  interior,  brought  less  in  contact  with 
the  whites,  have  preserved,  to  a  greater  degree,  the  characteristics 
peculiar  to  this  race,  and  generally  resemble  those  of  Western 
Australia,  of  whom  we  have  already  made  sufficient  mention. 

A  European  population,  which  is  still  inconsiderable,  is  dissem 
inated  over  immense  spaces  in  the  46  counties  of  which  the  colo- 
ny is  composed.  It  is  divided  into  two  principal  classes,  distinctly 
and  absolutely  separated  from  each  other,  not  by  law,  but  by 
custom,  and  between  whom  there  exists  no  more  affinity  than 
between  the  free  Americans  and  the  descendants  of  the  negroes, 
viz.,  the  class  of  free  men  and  the  government  class  or  discharged 
convicts.  From  the  insurmountable  prejudices  which  pitilessly 
banish  from  good  society  even  the  irreproachable  descendants  of 
former  convicts,  it  has  resulted  that  the  latter,  debarred  from  all 
relations  except  with  each  other,  boast  of  their  disgraceful  descent, 
and  maintain  a  no  less  exclusive  deportment  towards  their  adver- 
saries. Crimes  are  very  frequent  in  the  midst  of  a  population  of 
such  equivocal  origin  ;  but  can  this  occasion  surprise  when  one 
reflects  that  in  1849,  out  of  25,000  emigrants,  1226  were  convicts  ? 
However,  in  1850,  among  a  population  of  246,000  souls,  there 
were  computed  only  3500  convicts.  These  criminals  are  usually 
despatched  as  domestics  to  the  colonists,  but  many  among  them 
escape,  gain  the  w^oods,  are  there  organized  into  bands  of  robbers, 
and  become  the  scourge  of  the  European  establishments,  and  the 
torment  of  the  unfortunate  natives,  whom  they  exasperate,  render 
ferocious,  and  finally  kill,  or  oblige  to  flee  to  a  distance :  some 
among  them,  also,  greatly  harass  the  missions. 

Except  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  towns,  and  in  certain  places 
where  the  soil  is  particularly  favorable,  little  is  cultivated  except 
the  quantity  of  wheat  necessary  for  the  consumption  of  each  es- 
tablishment, and  most  of  the  colonists  devote  themselves  rather 
to  pastoral  life.  Each  of  them  possesses  an  extent  of  several 
square  miles,  which  he  calls  his  territory.     There  are  some  pro- 


568  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

prietors,  who,  at  the  period  when  the  land  west  of  the  Blue 
Mountains  was  sold  for  five  shillings  an  acre,  acquired  domains 
equal  to  German  principalities,  farms  of  50,000  acres,  containing 
25,000  sheep,  3000  oxen,  300  horses,  &c.  On  the  most  conven- 
ient point  of  his  territory  the  squatter  erects  a  house,  which  serves 
as  a  residence  for  the  chief  of  his  shepherds,  (if  he  does  not  him- 
self fill  that  office,)  near  which  he  always  makes  choice  of  a  field 
designed  to  produce  the  wheat  necessary  for  the  subsistence  of 
the  individuals  charged  with  the  guardianship  of  the  droves.  One 
shepherd  is  usually  intrusted  with  the  care  of  2000  sheep,  and 
the  keepers  of  the  oxen  are  much  more  numerous  in  proportion. 
The  sole  occupation  of  the  squatter  consists  in  once  or  twice  a 
day  visiting  his  domain,  in  order  to  superintend  his  shepherds. 
Shearing  his  sheep,  packing  the  wool  for  the  ports  on  the  coast, 
or  boihng  in  vast  caldrons  the  other  animals,  from  which  tons  of 
tallow  are  extracted,  which  rivals  that  of  Russia ;  then  transport- 
ing his  produce  to  Sydney,  where  he  consoles  himself  for  his  long 
isolation  by  foolish  expenses,  —  these,  together  with  the  occasional 
visits  of  his  neighbors,  constitute  the  only  interruptions  to  the 
monotonous  existence  of  the  colonist  of  the  interior.  The  pro- 
duction of  wool,  tallow,  and  hides  is  such  a  certain  source  of 
wealth  to  this  colony,  that  it  has  by  no  means  been  checked  by 
the  gold  fever,  which  had  indeed  an  entirely  contrary  effect.  In 
fact,  England,  which  received  from  Australia,  in  1850,  scarcely 
8,000,000  pounds  of  wool,  derived  thence,  in  the  three  succeed- 
ing years,  9,000,000,  9,500,000,  and  10,500,000.  The  expor- 
tation of  tallow  during  the  last  year  amounted  to  the  sum  of 
$740,000.  The  arrival  of  the  emigrants  attracted  by  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  immediately  raised  the  price  of  cattle.  It  was 
previously  valued  so  low  that  it  has  been  stated  that  at  least 
62,000,000  pounds  of  excellent  meat  were  suffered  to  spoil.  In 
1843,  a  sheep  was  worth  only  12  cents  ;  it  was  then  that  the 
manufacture  of  tallow  was  undertaken,  and  immediately  the  prices 
were  sensibly  augmented. 

Northern  Australia,  or  Port  Essington.  —  The  diffi- 
culties of  navigation  among  the  innumerable  islands  and  shoals 
which  are  found  at  the  entrance,  and  amidst  the  Strait  of  Tor- 
res, having  caused  the  shipwreck  of  many  vessels,  whose  crews 


OCEANIC  A.  569 

perished  miserably  on  the  northern  coast  of  Australia,  the  British 
government  judged  it  necessary  to  found  an  establishment  which 
might  serve  at  once  as  a  commercial  emporium  and  a  port  of 
refuge.  A  city,  which  received  the  name  of  Victoria,  was  founded 
at  Port  Essington ;  but  the  insalubrity  of  the  climate  and  the 
want  of  good  lands  completely  discouraged  the  colonists,  and  the 
establishment  was  declared  annulled  on  the  10th  of  June,  1849. 
It  has  never,  to  our  knowledge,  been  replaced.  These  regions 
are  therefore  almost  entirely  unknown. 

The  vegetation  appears  to  be  generally  poor,  and  but  little 
varied  ;  it  has  some  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Isles  of  Sunda. 

The  animals  are  those  of  the  rest  of  the  Australian  continent — 
kangaroos,  and  other  marsupials,  emeus,  black  swans,  &c.  A 
very  singular  trait  of  the  rCgou,  or  leipoa,  is  the  manner  in  which 
it  deposits  its  eggs.  It  is  said  to  construct  a  pyramid  of  earth  or 
sand,  seven  feet  in  diameter  and  three  in  height,  in  the  top  of 
which  it  pierces  a  cavity  of  a  foot  in  depth,  where  it  lays  its 
eggs,  leaving  them  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun ;  but 
when  the  young  are  on  the  point  of  hatching,  the  mother  returns 
in  search  of  them.  The  English  naturalist  Gould,  in  his  great 
work  on  the  birds  of  Australia,  enumerates  three  species  of  these 
constructing  birds,  which  he  calls  megapodides  ;  and  one  of  these 
species,  if  the  statements  of  travellers  may  be  credited,  builds 
nests  150  feet  in  circumference, and  24  in  height:  it  is  presumed 
that  they  have  been  thus  enlarged  from  year  to  year.  Crocodiles 
have  been  observed  in  the  rivers  of  this  portion  of  Australia. 
Many  tortoises  are  found  there,  among  others  green  tortoises, 
which  are  seven  feet  in  length,  three  or  four  in  width,  and  weigh- 
ing five,  six,  and  even  eight  quintals.  In  certain  places,  the  plains 
appear  to  be  studded  with  houses,  which,  on  a  nearer  view,  prove 
to  be  simply  the  conical  and  singularly  clustered  huts  of  the  white 
ants  or  termites. 

New  Guinea  is  so  called  on  account  of  the  resemblance  of  its 
inhabitants  to  the  negroes  of  Guinea,  in  Africa.  It  is  now  more 
commonly  called  Papua,  from  the  name  of  the  Papons  or  Papuans, 
which  form  an  important  part  of  its  population.  It  is  situated 
north  of  Australia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  dangerous 
Strait  of  Torres.  The  vast  Bay  of  Geelvink,  penetrating  into  the 
48* 


570  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

northern  coast,  produces  an  isthmus,  and  divides  the  island  into 
two  peninsulas,  the  most  western  of  which  is  the  smallest  and  best 
known.  In  the  interior  are  found  high  mountains,  whose  summits 
are  crowned  with  eternal  snows,  and  on  whose  sides  navigators 
have  descried  from  a  distance  magnificent  cataracts  falling  from 
rock  to  rock.  All  these  mountains  are  clothed  with  the  most  exu- 
berant vegetation,  amid  which  predominate  palm,  cocoa  nut,  sago, 
nutmeg,  bread  trees,  &c. 

As  in  Australia,  few  animals  are  encountered  in  this  island 
except  marsupials,  kangaroos,  &c.  But  the  admiration  of  voya- 
gers who  have  landed  in  New  Guinea  has  always  been  excited 
by  its  birds  of  gorgeous  colors,  which  are  truly  among  the  most 
beautiful  wonders  of  creation.  The  numerous  family  of  the  birds 
of  paradise  hold  the  first  rank  for  incomparable  brilliancy  of 


Bird  of  Paradise. 

plumage ;  their  long  tail,  of  a  flame  color,  is  often  worn  as  an 
ornament  by  European  ladies.  Independently  of  these  beautiful 
feathers,  most  of  the  species  have  also  fillets  from  two  to  three 
feet  long.  Others,  such  as  the  sijilet,  (six  fillets,)  have  on  their 
heads  six  feathers,  disposed  like  the  fillets  of  the  tail,  but  much 
shorter,  and  terminating  on  each  side  in  broad  beards,  besides  a 
tuft  which  rises  at  tlie  base  of  the  beak,  presenting  magnificent 


OCEANICA. 


571 


shades.  The  superha,  possessing,  as  it  were,  a  double  story  of 
wings,  diverging  in  rays,  and  under  the  neck  an  azure  fan,  also 
tapering  in  points,  resemble,  when  flying,  a  star  wandering  in 


^^-^ 


Superba. 


space.  The  great  paradise,  with  emerald-green  plumage,  a  neck 
equally  green,  but  shaded  with  gold,  and  with  silvery  sides,  seems 
likewise  to  present  beneath  its  wings  two  other  wings,  which 
are  exceedingly  light.  The  most  beautiful  of  all  is  the  red 
paradise,  whose  sides  are  decked  with  brilliant  red  plumage,  and 
whose  throat  sparkles  with  emerald  and  gold,  whilst  two  fillets 
hang  in  graceful  pendants  from  its  superb  tail.  All  these  birds, 
which  are  very  common  in  this  country,  constitute  an  object  of 
foreign  commerce  with  the  natives. 

These  are  not  the  only  remarkable  birds  of  New  Guinea ;  to 
them  may  be  added  legions  of  paroquets,  and  among  others 
cockatoos,  the  largest  parrots  of  tlie  old  world,  usually  white,  with 
a  yellow  tuft,  which  is  movable  at  the  will  of  the  bird  ;  horn  hills, 
the  singular  and  often  enormous  excrescences  of  whose  bills  have 
sometimes  caused  them  to  be  surnamed  rhinoceros  birds;  the 
argus,  of  the  pheasant  species,  so  called  on  account  of  the  multi- 
tude of  eyes  with  which  its  plumage  is  interspersed  ;  and  red  and 
tri-colored  loris  and  kingfishers,  of  unrivalled   beauty.     In  this 


572 


THE  GEOGRAPHY   OF  NATURE. 


country,  moreover,  are  found  menures  lyres,  and  other  birds  of 
New  Holland. 


Cockatoo. 


The  population  belongs  to  two  different  races.  The  indigenous 
negroes,  Harafouras,  of  a  dingy  brownish-black  skin,  with  short 
and  rough  hair,  an  extremely  wide  mouth,  and  a  frightfully  hide- 
ous aspect,  are  reputed  cannibals,  and  generally  inhabit  the  forests 
and  mountains  of  the  interior.  The  Papous,  more  or  less  inter- 
mingled with  the  Malays,  usually  occupy  the  coasts,  and  are 
especially  numerous  in  the  small  western  peninsula.  They  have 
also  very  dark  brown  skins,  but  their  features  are  quite  regular ; 
their  forms  tall,  although  slender ;  and  owing  to  their  habitual  con- 
tact with  the  populations  of  Malaysia,  they  are  possessed  of  a 
certain  civilization,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  most  elementary  arts. 
Tlieir  greatest  peculiarity  is  their  crispy,  rough,  and  brilliant 
black  hair,  usually  piled  on  their  heads  in  enormous  masses, 
sometimes  three  feet  in  circumference,  and  which  they  adorn  with 


OCEANICA. 


573 


Papous. 

beautiful  bird  of  paradise  feathers.  Their  huts  are  no  less  curi- 
ous than  the  occupants  ;  they  are  generally  built  on  piles  above 
the  water,  which  shelters  them  from  swarms  of  insects,  and  from 


Papou  Hilts. 

the  attacks  of  the   Harafouras.     Almost  all  these  populations 
are  pagans,  with  the  exception  of  a  certain  number  of  Papous 


574 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 


who  have  become  Mahometans.  No  Christian  church  has  yet 
undertaken  the  labor  of  the  conversion  of  this  vast  country.  The 
Dutch,  however,  in  the  year  1828,  founded  an  establishment  on 
the  western  coast. 

New  Britain  (comprising  JSfew  Britain,  properly  so  called. 
New  Ireland,  New  Hanover,  &c.)  is  a  considerable  archipel- 
ago, situated  at  the  north-east  of  New  Guinea.  It  is  inhabited 
by  ferocious  natives,  bearing  some  resemblance  to  the  Papuans, 
but  very  little  known.  The  forests,  which  appear  to  be  remark- 
ably fine,  contain  teak  wood  and  nutmeg  trees. 

The  vast  cluster  of  the  Solomon  Isles,  south-east  of  New  Britain, 
is  likewise  inhabited  by  black  Papuans  of  some  intelligence,  but 
who  are  always  at  war  with  each  other,  and  devour  their  pris- 
oners. They  cultivate  the  land,  possess  villages  and  beautiful 
boats,  and  manufacture  for  themselves  excellent  weapons.  Peefs 
and  coral  banks  render  the  approach  to  these  islands  very  diffi- 
cult. The  Solomon  Isles,  like  the  preceding,  do  not  seem  to  have 
attracted  the  attention  of  Christian  missionaries. 

The  little  archipelago  of  Santa  Cruz,  south-east  of  the  Solomon 
Isles,  owes  all  its  celebrity  to  the  shipwreck  of  the  unfortunate 


Vanikoro  Islander. 


French  navigator  La  Perouse,  who,  with  his  two  ships,  was 
wrecked  in  1788,  on  the  reefs  of  the  small  island  of  Vanikoro, 
where  a  monument  has  since  been  erected  to  his  memory. 


OCEANICA.  575 

The  much  more  considerable  archipelago  of  New  Hebrides^  or 
St.  Esprit,  is  composed  of  many  very  fertile  islands,  embellished 
by  a  rich  vegetation,  and  inhabited  by  cruel  blacks,  who  are  al- 
ways at  war.  Fifteen  years  ago,  they  massacred  the  celebrated 
evangelical  missionary  Williams,  surnamed  by  the  English  the 
apostle  of  Polynesia ;  but  since  that  period  the  gospel  has  made 
great  progress  among  them.  The  murderer  himself  has  been 
converted,  and  in  the  very  island  of  Erromango,  where  the  mis- 
sionary and  his  companions  suffered  martyrdom,  there  are  now 
found  zealous  Christians  and  schools. 

Still  more  encouraging  changes  have  been  effected  of  late  years 
in  the  Loyalty  Islands,  a  little  archipelago,  situated  south  of  the 
preceding.  Owing  to  the  courage  and  devoted  zeal  of  native 
missionaries,  against  whom  the  savages  entertain  fewer  prejudices 
than  against  the  Europeans,  the  inhabitants  of  whole  islands  have 
been  won  over  to  the  evangelical  faith,  have  renounced  idolatry 
and  war,  erected  chapels  and  schools,  adopted  the  use  of  decent 
garments,  and  lead  an  honest  and  peaceable  life. 

New  Caledonia,  south-west  of  the  preceding,  is  a  large  island, 
from  80  to  90  leagues  in  length,  and  from  18  to  20  in  breadth, 
dangerous  of  approach  on  the  south-western  side,  on  account  of  a 
terrific  chain  of  shoals  which  border  it  and  extend  to  a  distance. 
It  is  traversed  from  one  extremity  to  the  other  by  mountains, 
whose  composition  has  led  the  French  expedition,  which  has  re- 
cently taken  possession  of  this  country,  to  suspect  that  they  might 
even  contain  gold  mines.  At  all  events,  the  existence  of  abun- 
dant mines  of  coal  has  been  ascertained.  In  the  southern  portion 
there  are  beautiful  forests  —  the  bread  tree,  the  banana,  and  the 
cocoa  nut  flourish  in  this  island  ;  the  natives  cultivate  the  sugar 
cane  and  the  arum. 

This  latter  plant,  the  most  precious  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
small  islands  of  Oceanica,  next  to  the  bread  tree,  is  also  known 
by  the  name  of  taro.  It  is  a  large,  oblong,  and  tuberdhs  root, 
being  from  9  to  12  inches  in  length,  and  from  5  to  6  in  diameter. 
It  is  destitute  of  a  stalk  ;  its  broad  leaves  assume  the  form  of  a 
heart,  and  its  flower  is  enclosed  in  a  kind  of  sheath.  It  is  culti- 
vated in  marshy  places.  This  root,  in  its  raw  state,  is  extremely 
acrid.     If  placed  in  the  mouth,  it  occasions  not  only  a  sharp  pain, 


576  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

but  also  burnings  of  the  tongue  and  palate.  But  when  cooked, 
after  being  stripped  of  its  bark,  it  constitutes  a  mealy  and  very 
nutritious  substance,  almost  precisely  resembling  the  potato. 

The  animal  kingdom  in  New  Caledonia  is  very  poor;  dogs, 
and  even  hogs,  were  unknown  before  the  arrival  of  the  Euro- 
peans. On  the  other  hand,  many  birds  are  found  there,  and  a 
large  spider,  which  serves  for  food,  and  whose  webs  are  so  strong 
that,  in  tearing  them,  one  experiences  a  certain  resistance.  The 
inhabitants,  who  are  also  Papuans,  are  large  and  robust,  warlike, 
sanguinary,  and  even  addicted  to  cannibalism.  Catholic  mission- 
aries have  already  obtained  marked  success  in  many  portions  of 
this  large  island,  and  have  begun  to  initiate  the  savages  in  the 
elementary  principles  of  our  civilization.  The  occupation  of  this 
country  by  France  will,  doubtless,  exercise  a  powerful  influence 
upon  this  growing  w^ork. 

The  Feejee  Islands,  east  of  the  New  Hebrides,  form  the 
most  eastern  archipelago  of  Polynesia.  It  is  composed  of  two 
large  islands,  Viti  Levu  and  Paoo,  and  multitudes  of  smaller  ones. 
During  a  long  period,  these  islands  were  frequently  visited  by 
English  or  American  vessels,  which  came  thither  in  search  of 
sandal  wood,  to  be  sold  in  China,  considerable  quantities  of 
which  were  obtained  in  exchange  for  a  few  pairs  of  scissors,  nails, 
or  mirrors,  for  which  the  natives  were  very  eager ;  this  wood  has 
now  become  rare  and  expensive.  The  inhabitants  are  blacks,  of 
the  Papuan  race,  well  formed,  strong,  vigorous,  intelHgent,  and 
industrious.  Unfortunately,  they  are  the  most  ferocious  cannibals 
of  all  Oceanica.  Not  only  do  their  chiefs  select  from  among  their 
prisoners  those  which  are  destined  to  be  devoured,  precisely  as  a 
butcher  chooses  from  his  flock  the  animal  which  he  intends  to 
slaughter,  but  it  is  no  rare  event  for  a  band  of  men,  quietly  oc- 
cupied in  fishing  and  cultivating  the  ground,  to  find  themselves 
unexpectedly  attacked  by  a  stronger  band,  who  massacre  all  those 
who  cannot  make  their  escape.  The  following  days  are  devoted 
to  prolonged  festivals,  and  amid  great  rejoicing  the  victims  are 
devoured.  Even  the  children  take  part  in  these  atrocious  feasts, 
A  chief  would  consider  himself  dishonored,  if,  upon  receiving  a 
visit  from  another  chief,  he  could  not  procure  him  an  entertain- 
ment of  human  flesh.     Add  to  these  traits  of  barbarity  the  most 


OCEANIC  A. 


57T 


revolting  harshness  towards  the  infirm  and  sick,  who  are  usually 
massacred ;  and,  also,  towards  the  women,  who  supply  the  place 
of  beasts  of  burden,  and  are  employed  in  the  roughest  labors,  (the 


Islander  of  Feejee. 

widows  being  strangled  at  the  death  of  their  husbands,)  and  some 
conception  may  be  formed  of  the  repelling  manners  of  the  Fee- 
jeeans. 

But  already,  by  the  grace  of  God,  has  the  light  of  the  gospel 
begun  to  penetrate  this  profound  moral  darkness.  First,  mission- 
aries from  Polynesia,  and  afterwards  English  missionaries,  in- 
spired by  the  love  of  Christ,  introduced  the  religion  of  peace  into 
the  midst  of  these  sanguinary  and  pitiless  populations.  Frequent- 
ly maltreated,  repeatedly  banished,  always  laboring  in  the  face 
of  death,  they  have  courageously  pursued  the  good  work  which 
they  had  undertaken ;  and,  although  wars  and  murders  have  not 
yet  entirely  ceased,  the  moral  influence  of  the  evangelical  preach-, 
ers  now  succeeds,  in  most  cases,  in  preventing  the  greatest  ex- 
cesses. The  natives,  after  becoming  Christians,  absolutely  re- 
nounce the  ancient  animosities  of  one  village  for  another,  and  all 
49 


678  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

the  customs  appertaining,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  idolatry  and 
cannibalism.  They  may  be  seen  decently  clothed,  frequenting  ia 
crowds  the  chapels  and  schools,  where  numerous  children  are  care- 
fully educated.  Young  and  old  evince  a  decided  taste  for  reading, 
and  all  manifest  the  most  lively  desire  to  possess  the  Bible,  trans- 
lated into  their  own  tongue.  In  one,  alone,  of  the  islands  of  this 
archipelago,  that  of  Lakemha^  no  less  than  1300  persons  have 
been  baptized  within  the  last  two  years ;  about  800  of  whom  were 
adults,  only  admitted  aTter  their  conversion  had  undergone  a 
thorough  test.  Every  thing,  then,  gives  encouragement  that 
Christian  civilization  will,  ere  long,  have  completely  transformed 
these  populations,  recently  so  perverse  and  degi'aded. 

Van  Diemen's  Land,  called  also  Tasmania  from  the  name 
of  the  Dutch  navigator  (Tasman)  who  discovered  it  in  1643, 
is  a  large,  triangular  island,  situated  south-east  of  Australia, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Strait  of  Bass.  Its  coasts  are 
high,  wooded,  and  indented  by  excellent  harbors.  It  is  watered 
by  numerous  and  beautiful  rivers,  the  principal  of  which  are  the 
Derwent,  which  empties  at  the  south  into  the  spacious  Storm  Bay, 
and  the  Tamar,  wliich  flows  towards  the  north,  where  its  mouth 
forms  Port  Dalrymple.  Many  chains  of  mountains,  alternated 
by  charming  valleys,  and  encompassing  vast  and  fertile  plains, 
run  in  different  directions.  The  climate  is  healthy  and  temperate, 
but  cold  rather  than  hot ;  it  is  very  similar  to  that  of  England, 
with  the  exception  of  the  fogs.  Iron  has  been  found  in  great 
quantities ;  also  copper,  pit  coal,  amianthus  or  asbestos,  alum,  slate, 
and  salt.  In  respect  to  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms,  there 
exists  a  striking  resemblance  between  Van  Diemen's  Land  and 
Australia.  The  cereals  and  fruits  of  temperate  Europe  (the  vine 
excepted)  succeed  to  perfection,  and  the  aspect  of  the  cultivation 
of  this  beautiful  English  colony  is  precisely  that  of  the  regions 
of  Western  Europe.  Many  horses,  oxen,  and  sheep  ai-e  raised 
there.  Although  among  the  animals  of  the  forests,  the  wild  dog, 
or  dingo,  is  unknown,  this  country  produces  an  animal  which  ex- 
ecutes serious  ravages  among  the  flocks ;  this  is  the  dog-headed 
opossum,  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  zebra  opossum,  or  ze- 
bra wolf,  on  account  of  15  or  16  transversal  stripes,  descending 
from  the  back  to  the  legs  across  its  smooth  and  dark  brown  hair. 


OCEANICA.  679 

It  is  of  the  size  of  a  young  wolf,  and  dwells  among  the  ravines 
and  highest  valleys  of  the  mountains.  This  is  the  largest  car- 
liivorous  animal  of  the  austral  regions.  It  hunts  only  by  night ; 
during  the  day  it  is  affected  by  an  incessant  winking  of  the  eye- 
lids, and  its  motions  denote  little  intelligence.  The  kangaroos, 
emeus,  black  swans,  &c.,  are  rapidly  disappearing  before  the 
progress  of  colonization. 

The  native  popvlation  has  for  many  years  been  extinct,  having 
been  exterminated  by  the  European  emigrants  and  convicts  trans- 
ported from  England,  precisely  as  in  New  South  Wales.  Van 
Diemen  forms  a  flourishing  and  prosperous  colony,  where  all  re- 
ligious sects  have  their  pastors  and  schools,  and  rival  each  other 
in  efforts  to  moralize  and  enlighten  this  mixed  community,  com- 
pounded of  so  many  impure  elements. 

Sect.  3.  Western  Oceanica,  or  Malay  Archipelago. 
—  This  name  has  been  given  to  the  great  Indian  Archipelago, 
situated  south-east  of  Asia,  because  it  is  principally  inhabited  by 
the  Malay  race. 

Isles  of  Sunda.-— These  islands,  of  superb  and  exuberant 
vegetation,  form,  at  the  north  of  Australia,  a  long  chain  which 
extends  from  west  to  east,  commencing  at  the  extremity  of  the 
peninsula  of  Malacca.  The  principal  are  Sumatra,  Java,  and 
Timor. 

Sumatra,  the  largest,  stretches  from  north-west  to  south-east. 
It  is  traversed  from  one  extremity  to  the  other  by  a  chain  of  vol- 
canic mountains,  of  which  Mount  Ophir  is  the  highest  peak.  The 
coasts  are  generally  low,  marshy,  and  unhealthy.  Although  sit- 
uated under  the  equator,  which  divides  it  into  two  almost  equal 
parts,  this  island  has  not  a  burning  climate  ;  the  rainy  or  north- 
west monsoon  commences  in  December  and  ends  in  March.  Su- 
matra contains  mines  of  various  metals,  and  especially  gold  bear- 
ings, which  are  tolerably  rich,  but  which  the  islanders  can  only 
explore  by  washing.  As  the  other  products  are  generally  the 
same  as  those  of  the  two  peninsulas  of  India,  we  shall  only  enu- 
merate here  those  which  are  peculiar  to  the  island,  or  of  especial 
importance  to  its  inhabitants.  Among  the  vegetables,  the  pepper 
plant  holds  the  first  rank ;  in  1842,  Sumatra  produced  32,000,000 


680 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


pounds  of  pepper.      Bice,  which  includes   a  great  number  of 
species,  forms  the  staple  food  of  the  natives. 

Next  to  the  rice  the  most  precious  plants  are  the  cocoa  nut  and 
the  banana  trees,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken  elsewhere. 
The  cocoa  nut  is  a  tree  of  the  great  family  of  palms,  useful  at 


Cocoa  Nut. 


once  in  its  wood,  its  sap,  its  fruit,  and  its  leaves,  which  are  suit- 
able for  covering  houses.  Its  trunk,  from  70  to  90  feet  in  height, 
is  used  for  building  wood ;  its  leaves,  from  10  to  15  feet  in  length 
and  three  in  width,  serve  not  only  for  covering  houses,  but  also 
for  manufacturing  paper,  mats,  and  sails,  and  for  nourishing  ele- 


OCEANICA. 


581 


pliants.  From  the  sap  is  extracted  a  black  sugar,  vinegar,  and  a 
kind  of  wine  which  is  very  agreeable  to  the  people  of  the  coun- 
try. The  fruit,  or  cocoa  nut,  is  as  large  as  a  man's  head,  of  an 
elongated  and  somewhat  triangular  form.  Before  it  ripens,  this 
nut  contains  a  kind  of  milk,  or  liquor,  capable  of  allaying  thirst,  and 
very  agreeable  to  the  taste.  It  may  be  procured  without  crack- 
ing or  breaking  the  nut,  by  piercing  three  small  holes,  which  are 
covered  only  with  thin  bark,  and  found  at  one  of  the  extremities 
of  this  very  hard  shell.  The  meat,  when  ripe,  has  the  taste  of 
the  hazel  nut,  and  furnishes  either  a  very  agreeable  aliment  or  oil 
suitable  for  burning.     This  nut  is  enveloped  in  a  fibrous  matting, 


Banana. 


49 


682 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


of  which  thread  and  cloth  are  woven ;  the  rind  or  shell  of  the 
nut  is  employed,  on  account  of  its  hardness,  in  the  manufacture  of 
vessels  and  various  utensils. 

The  banana  is  a  plant  remarkable  for  its  leaves  of  prodigious 
size,  and  its  enormous  bunches  or  clusters  of  fruit,  of  which  one 
alone  may  weigh  70  pounds,  and  contain  as  many  as  160  of  the 
fruit :  the  latter  is  a  very  nourishing  substance,  and  is  usually 
eaten  cooked.  The  banana  is  one  of  the  most  useful  and  general- 
ly diffused  plants  on  the  surface  of  the  globe. 

This  island  furnishes  a  great  quantity  of  camphor,  which  is  ob- 
tained both  by  simj)le  incisions  in  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  (this  is 
the  purest,)  and  by  distilling  the  branches  or  roots ;  each  tree  is 
capable  of  yielding  about  three  pounds.  The  rotangs,  or  ratans, 
of  Sumatra  are  exported  to  Europe,  to  be  used  as  canes.  This 
island  abounds  in  mangoes,  one  of  the  most  exquisite  fruits  known, 
in  pine  apples  and  in  palm  trees,  which  are  more  numerous  in  the 
Isles  of  Sunda  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  But  the  prin- 
cipal vegetable  curiosity  of  this  island  is  the  rafflesia  arnoldi, 


Bahyroussa. 


OCEANICA.  683 

bearing  a  flower  of  enormous  size.  This  is  a  parasitic  plant,  whose 
very  small  root  grows  at  the  foot  of  certain  trees ;  its  buds  are  of 
the  size  of  an  ordinary  cabbage,  and  the  flower,  when  expanded, 
is  eight  or  nine  feet  in  circumference,  and  sometimes  weighs  15 
pounds ;  its  calyx  might  easily  contain  12  pints  of  water.  Un- 
fortunately, this  very  remarkable  flower  exhales  a  disagreeable 
odor,  like  that  of  tainted  meat. 

The  animals  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  of  India  —  ele- 
phants, rhinoceroses,  hippopotami,  and  crocodiles ;  tigers,  black 
bears,  deer,  wild  boars,  tapirs  of  two  colors;  many  monkeys, 
among  others  gibbons  and  orang-outangs ;  the  salangane,  the 
species  of  swallow  whose  nests  are  eaten  ;  the  hahyroussa,  a  kind 
of  wild  hog  with  very  large  tusks,  which  curve  backwards ;  and 
the  buffalo,  which  takes  the  place  of  the  ox,  and  is  alone  em- 
ployed in  tillage.  But  few  of  the  latter  are  found  in  the  wild 
state,  as  they  are  mortally  pursued  by  the  tigers  which  abound  in 
the  forests. 

The  population  is  composed  of  Mahometan  Malays,  who  are 
now  the  dominant  race,  and  of  the  ancient,  black,  indigenous  in- 
habitants, still,  for  the  most  part,  pagans,  among  whom  are  cited 
colonies  who,  like  the  Battas,  are  cannibals,  and  in  the  event  of 
certain  crimes,  condemn  the  guilty  to  be  devoured.  We  are  even 
assured  that  they  were  formerly  in  the  habit  of  eating  their  aged 
parents.  The  Dutch  have  important  establishments  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  this  island. 

Among  the  numerous  islands  adjacent  to  Sumatra,  we  shall 
only  specify  Banca,  renowned  throughout  Asia,  and  especially  in 
China,  for  its  rich  tin  mines,  and  Billiton,  where  much  iron  is 
found. 

The  Island  of  Java,  east  of  the  preceding,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Strait  of  Sunda,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and 
fertile  in  the  world.  It  is  very  mountainous,  and  contains  30 
volcanoes  which  cause  terrible  earthquakes,  and  emit  ashes,  lavas, 
and  sulphurous  vapors ;  besides  sometimes  disgorging  water  and 
mud  over  considerable  spaces,  which  are  thus  completely  laid 
waste.  The  southern  coast  is  steep  and  almost  inaccessible  ;  the 
northern  coast,  on  the  contrary,  is  flat,  marshy,  and  possesses 
many  ports. 


584  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

The  climate  is  very  hot  in  the  plain,  and  was  formerly  con- 
sidered pestilential,  but  has  now  become  salubrious ;  Europeans 
should,  however,  take  the  precaution  of  resorting,  during  the  rainy 
monsoon,  to  the  high  countries  of  the  interior  for  the  enjoyment 
of  fresh  and  healthful  air. 

The  vegetation  of  Java  is  of  extraordinary  luxuriance.  The 
soil,  composed  of  the  best  vegetable  mould,  always  moist  and 
stimulated  by  the  ardent  heat  of  a  tropical  sun,  produces  trees, 
whose  trunks,  owing  to  their  rapid  growth,  are  of  a  spongy  nature, 
whilst  the  trees  themselves  are  overladen  with  parasitic  plants, 
and  especially  with  orchidece,  more  than  300  species  of  which  are 
peculiar  to  this  island.  Ferns,  in  the  form  of  trees,  compose  a 
large  portion  of  the  vegetation  of  Java ;  mosses,  which  creep  in 
cold  countries,  there  attain  three  feet  in  length.  No  other  coun- 
try presents  so  great  an  abundance  and  variety  of  indigenous 
fruits  and  nutritious  vegetables,  mangoes,  pineapples,  &c.  There 
are,  it  is  said,  a  hundred  varieties  of  rice,  and  the  number  of  odo- 
riferous flowers,  shrubs,  and  ornamental  trees  is  infinite.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  nettle  tribe  is  here  characterized  by  the  most  per- 
nicious qualities ;  even  those  which  resemble  our  common  nettle 
contain  a  poison  so  acrid  that  their  sting  occasions,  in  Java,  not 
only  a  painful  sensation,  but  also  a  malady  which  lasts  several 
days.  None  of  the  vegetables  of  this  class,  however,  are  pos- 
sessed of  such  a  poisonous  nature  as  the  famous  upa^,  concerning 
which  marvellous  accounts  were  for  a  long  time  circulated,  al- 
leging that  it  destroyed  plants  at  a  distance,  and  that  men  and 
animals  could  not  approach  it  without  endangering  their  lives. 
The  truth  is,  that  its  sap  only  is  noxious ;  but  it  is  of  such  energy 
that  a  few  grains  introduced  into  the  cellular  tissue  of  a  dog  are 
sufficient  to  cause  the  animal  to  perish  in  a  short  time  in  horrible 
convulsions ;  thus  the  Javanese  make  use  of  it,  in  time  of  war, 
for  poisoning  their  arrows.  But,  although  some  of  the  trees  of 
this  family  are  remarkable  for  the  sharpness  of  their  milky 
juice,  there  are  others  which  yield  fleshy,  mild,  and  agreeable 
fruits,  some  of  which  constitute  almost  the  only  nourishment  of 
entire  countries.  Such  are  those  of  the  different  varieties  of  the 
bread  or  jacca  tree,  (artocarpus)  which  are  as  large  as  the  head 
of  a  child,  and  which,  cooked  in  the  ashes  or  in  an  oven,  acquire 


OCEANICA.  685 

a  taste  analogous  to  that  of  the  chestnut,  and  supply  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  islands  of  Oceanica  with  a  food  which  is  both  whole- 


Jacca,  or  Bread  Tree. 

some  and  abundant.  The  vast  forests  contain  excellent  woods  for 
building  purposes  or  for  furniture,  such  as  the  teak  or  ebony,  as 
likewise  trees  producing  extremely  valuable  resins — the  gutta 
percha,  a  substance  already  mentioned  in  connection  with  Indo- 
China,  and  whose  utility  appears  to  be  even  greater  than  that  of 
the  caoutchouc ;  and  the  benzoin,  a  resin  similar  to  incense  or 
myrrh,  and  which  is  procured  by  means  of  incisions  made  in  the 
bark  of  a  large  tree  of  the  storax  species ;  it  is  employed  in  med- 
icine and  as  a  perfume.  Java  exports  to  Europe  a  considerable 
quantity  of  ratans,  and  sapan  wood,  also  called  India  Brazil  wood, 
a  tree  which  furnishes  a  red  color  similar  to  that  of  the  Brazil 
wood. 

Cultivation  is  generally  very  well  undei'stood,  and  affords  the 
Dutch  masters  of  this  beautiful  country  very  rich  revenues. 
Rice,  coffee,  sugar,  indigo,  tea,  and  the  cochineal  are  the  princi- 
pal colonial  commodities  which  are  obtained  from  this  country. 
The  rice  plantations  usually  occupy  the  plains ;  coffee  groves 
crown  the  hills  ;  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  extend  vast 
nurseries  of  tea,  which  cannot,  however,  rival  that  of  China ;  in 
the  same  places,  the  cochineal  cactus  is  planted  in  symmetrical 
rows,  and  covered  with  a  roof  of  palm  leaves,  transported  on  roll- 


586  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

ers,  and  designed  to  protect  both  the  insect  and  the  plant  from 
heavy  rain  storms. 

Animals  throng  the  forests  ;  they  consist  of  rhinoceroses  with 
one  horn,  (while  those  of  Sumatra  have  two,)  the  terrible  black 
panther  of  Java,  stags,  gazelles,  the  pygmy  musk,  whose  body  is 
scarcely  as  large  as  that  of  the  hare,  and  flying  dragons,  ^qtj 
graceful  lizards  of  a  beautiful  green,  which  flit  from  branch  to 
branch,  and  sustain  themselves  in  the  air  as  upon  an  umbrella,  by 
means  of  a  skin,  which,  on  each  side  of  the  body,  extends  from 
one  leg  to  the  other.  Tigers  are,  moreover,  the  terror  of  the 
country,  devouring  every  year  200  or  300  inhabitants.  The 
Javanese,  like  the  Sumatrans,  entertain  a  superstitious  respect  for 
this  animal ;  they  often  assemble  in  one  of  their  villages  to  pre- 
sent to  the  ferocious  beast  offerings  of  meat  and  the  remains 
of  animals,  hoping  that  through  gratitude  it  will  exercise  for- 
bearance towards  men.  Elsewhere  they  have  the  same  rever- 
ence for  crocodiles,  which,  with  certain  serpents,  abound  in  the 
rivers.  The  buffalo  is  the  principal  domestic  animal ;  the  salan- 
ganes  build  their  nests  in  grottos  on  the  borders  of  the  sea,  and 
these  nests  are  sold  in  Java  for  $15  a  pound.  A  remarkable 
bird,  which  is  met  with  in  most  of  the  islands  of  Malaysia,  as  well 
as  in  India,  is  the  helmeted  cassowary,  so  called  on  account  of  the 
kind  of  horned  helmet  by  which  its  head  is  surmounted.  It  be- 
longs to  a  different  species  from  the  emeu  of  New  Holland,  which 
it  however  resembles  in  its  size,  its  hairy  feathers,  and  its  wings, 
useless  for  flight,  being  provided  only  with  a  few  long  quills,  com- 
parable to  pen  stalks. 

The  population  appears  to  be  composed  of  a  race  akin  to  the 
Hindoos,  whose  language,  manners,  and  religion,  it  formerly  pos- 
sessed. It  is  now  Mahometan,  and  the  Dutch  Protestant  missions 
have  not,  up  to  the  present  time,  been  attended  with  very  great 
success.  The  Javanese,  subject  for  the  most  part  to  Holland,  are 
mild  and  peaceable  Malays,  patient,  superstitious,  and  tolerably 
well  informed,  but  indolent,  false,  addicted  to  vice  and  polygamy, 
passionately  fond  of  opium,  games  of  chance,  and  especially  of 
cockfights.  The  other  inhabitants  are  Dutch,  in  inconsiderable 
numbers,  and  many  Chinese,  who  come  thither  to  gain  a  liveli- 
hood, as  laborers  or  merchants. 


OCEANICA. 


587 


Javanese  Soldier. 


Timor  is  a  large,  but  by  no  means  fertile  island.  It  exports 
sandal  wood,  wax,  and  salangane  nests.  The  soil  is  dry  and 
stony,  and  but  for  its  bananas,  cocoa  nut,  and  jacca  trees,  Timor 
could  not  maintain  its  feeble  population.  The  Dutch  possess  the 
south-western,  and  the  Portuguese  the  north-eastern  part.  The 
small  islands  of  Sunda,  Madura,  Bali,  Lomhock,  Sumbawa,  Flores, 
and  Sandal  Wood,  furnish  almost  precisely  the  same  products  as 
the  larger  ones. 

The  Moluccas,  or  Spice  Islands.  —  North-east  of  Timor 
commences  the  archipelago  known  under  the  name  of  Moluccas, 
(in  Arabic,  Royal  Islands,)  comprising  Gilolo,  Ceram,  Booro, 
Amboyna,  the  Banda  Islands,  Batshian,  Oby,  and  Waigeoo.  All 
have  the  character  of  volcanic  countries  ;  their  shattered  aspect, 
singularly  grouped  rocks,  towering  to  great  height,  and  numerous 
volcanoes,  both  extinct  and  in  activity,  certainly  indicate  a  region 
long  rent  by  convulsions. 

Climate,  —  The  Moluccas  are  the  most  unhealthy  of  all  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  archipelago :  criminals  have  often  been 
transported  thither. 

Vegetables,  —  The  Moluccas  are  naturally  of  little  fertility,  and 


588  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

the  Dutch  are  obliged  to  procure  from  the  Islands  of  Sunda  many 
of  the  commodities  which  are  most  indispensable  to  life.  The 
bread  tree,  the  cocoa  nut,  and  various  useful  vegetables  of  India, 
succeed  there ;  nevertheless,  it  may  safely  be  asserted,  that,  but 
for  the  sago  palm  and  the  spice  trees,  Europeans  would  never 
have  dreamed  of  establishing  themselves  upon  these  rocky  soils. 
The  sago  tree  is  a  species  of  palm,  from  whose  marrow  an  excel- 
lent fecula  is  obtained,  which,  among  the  natives  of  the  country, 
supplies  the  place  of  bread.  After  the  trunk  of  these  trees  has 
been  cut  longitudinally,  the  marrow  is  removed,  grated,  and 
washed  in  cold  water ;  a  paste  is  then  made  of  it,  which  is  passed 
through  a  sieve,  being  rolled  in  such  a  manner  as  to  reduce  it  to 
small  grains.     It  is  first  dried  in  the  sun,  and  afterwards  by  the 


Sago  Palm. 

heat  of  a  very  slow  fire.  It  is  said  that  a  single  tree  may  yield 
400  pounds  of  sago.  These  small  grains,  of  different  shades  of 
color,  and  of  the  size  of  a  large  pin's  head,  when  prepared  with 
milk  or  other  ingredients,  form  excellent  soups,  frequently  recom- 
mended to  the  sick  as  a  very  mild  nourishment,  at  once  nutritious 
and.  agreeable.  Sago  is  principally  procured  from  the  Moluccas. 
The  nutmeg  is  exported  to  us  almost  exclusively  from  the  group 
of  Banda,  although,  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  this  cultivation 


OCEANIC  A. 


589 


was  introduced  by  M.  Poivie  into  the  Isle  of  France,  whence  it 
has  passed  to  Cayenne  and  the  Antilles.  After  exterminating 
the  natives  from  these  islands,  the  Dutch  established  European 
colonists  there,  upon  the  condition  that  they  should  furnish  the 
nutmeg  only  to  the  Dutch  Company,  and  at  a  fixed  price.  The 
nutmeg  is  a  tree  of  about  30  feet  in  height,  very  bushy,  and  re- 
sembling an  orange  tree.  The  flower  has  some  resemblance  to 
the  lily ;  the  fruit  is  almost  the  size  of  an  apricot,  and  not  very 
different  in  color.  When  ripe,  it  opens  spontaneously,  and  ex- 
poses to  view  the  aril,  or  mace,  a  dark-red  envelope,  beneath 


Nvimeg  Tree. 


which  is  found  a  kind  of  frail  shell,  which  constitutes  the  immedi- 
ate covering  of  the  kernel,  or  nutmeg,  properly  so  called.  The 
latter  is  round  or  oval  in  form,  of  the  size  of  a  small  nut,  capable 
of  being  cut  with  a  knife,  of  a  brown  color,  and  internally  veined. 
50 


590 


THE  GEOGRAPHY   OP  NATURE. 


After  being  well  dried  and  soaked  in  lime  water,  which  secures 
them  from  the  attacks  of  insects,  the  nutmegs  are  exported  to 
Europe,  where  they  are  employed  as  aromatics  in  the  preparation 
of  dishes,  or  in  medicine  as  a  very  energetic  stimulant.  The 
mace  serves  similar  purposes ;  the  male  nutmeg,  so  called,  is  the 
fruit  of  the  wild  nutmeg,  and  is  not  possessed  of  the  same  proper- 
ties. The  clove  is  one  of  the  most  elegant  of  trees,  of  pyramidal 
form,  always  green,  and  always  adorned  with  an  innumerable 


Clove  Tree. 


multitude  of  pretty  rosy  flowers.  The  clove,  which  many  authors 
have  mistaken  for  the  fruit  of  this  tree,  is  merely  the  bud  or  the 
flower,  gathered  before  its  expansion,  then  immersed  in  boiling 
water,  and  exposed  during  a  few  days  to  smoke,  before  being 
dried  in  the  sun.  Although  the  French  have  introduced  the  cul- 
tivation of  this  tree  into  Bourbon,  Cayenne,  and  the  Antilles,  yet 
the  Dutch  have  always  the  principal  monopoly  of  the  clove.  For 
a  long  time  they  even  caused  the  clove  trees  to  be  uprooted  every 
where  except  in  the  Islands  of  Amboyna  and  Temate.     The 


OCEANICA.  591 

young  trees  do  not  begin  to  produce  flowers  until  they  nave  been 
planted  10  or  12  years.  These  flowers  are  so  light  that  it  requires 
about  500  of  them,  when  dried,  to  constitute  a  pound ;  and  yet,  after 
a  few  years,  each  tree  may  yield  from  6  to  40  or  50  pounds. 
They  are  cultivated  in  gardens  and  parks.  The  clove  is  princi- 
pally used  for  the  seasoning  of  dishes. 

The  animals  and  population  present  no  remarkable  character- 
istics. The  natives  are  negroes,  or  Malays;  pagans,  Mahome- 
tans, or  Christians  converted  through  the  labors  of  Protestant 
missionaries.  The  Dutch  rule,  directly  or  indirectly,  over  all 
these  islands. 

Island  of  Celebes.  —  Celebes,  so  remarkable  for  the  pecu- 
liar form  of  its  four  elongated  peninsulas,  possesses  very  beautiful 
sites,  and  a  mild  and  agreeable  climate.  Gold  is  collected  in  the 
sand  of  many  rivers,  and  all  the  plants  of  the  Islands  of  Sunda 
are  found  there.  Neither  tigers  nor  elephants  are  met  with,  but 
many  wild  boars,  stags,  very  mischievous  monkeys,  serpents,  bab- 
yroussas,  &c.  The  inhabitants  are  Malays,  of  which  the  best 
known  are  the  Boogis,  skilful  and  intrepid  seamen,  whose  craft 
may  be  seen  in  all  the  seas  of  the  south-east  of  Asia.  They 
are  generally  Mahometans  ;  some,  however,  are  Christians.  The 
Dutch  established  at  Macassar  extend  their  influence  over  the 
whole  island. 

Borneo.  —  Borneo,  called  by  the  natives  Pooloo  Kalemantin, 
is  the  largest  island  in  the  world.  It  is  situated  west  of  Celebes, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Strait  of  Macassar.  Its  extent 
is  almost  equal  to  that  of  Germany,  but  it  is  thinly  peopled,  and 
but  little  known.  The  coasts  are  flat,  marshy,  and  unhealthy ; 
the  interior  is  covered  with  well-wooded  mountains,  and  presents 
charming  landscapes  to  the  eye. 

Minerals  are  the  principal  wealth  of  Borneo.  It  is  a  diamond 
producing  country,  like  Brazil ;  nowhere,  indeed,  are  found  such 
large  specimens.  The  Sultan  of  Matan  possesses  one,  for  exam- 
ple, which  is  not  cut,  and  which  is  prized  at  $1,400,000.  The 
gold  mines  are  also  very  valuable,  and  are  wrought  in  various 
places,  as  likewise  those  of  iron,  copper,  and  tin.  Boch  crystals 
are  so  abundant  in  one  of  the  chains  which  traverse  the  island, 
that  it  has  been  sumamed  Crystal  Mountain.     Excellent  coal  is 


592  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

also  found  in  some  islands  near  the  mouth  of  the  River  Borneo. 
The  largest  of  these  islands,  called  Labooan,  (on  the  north-west 
coast,)  has  been  taken  within  a  few  years  by  the  English  govern- 
ment, in  order  to  serve  as  a  place  of  refreshment  and  supply  for 
vessels  bound  to  China. 

The  vegetation  of  Borneo  seems  to  be  very  luxuriant,  but  it 
differs  little  from  that  of  the  Isles  of  Sunda.  Nowhere  does  the 
camphor  tree  yield  such  choice  products,  insomuch  that  $2400  are 
there  paid  for  a  certain  quantity  (125  pounds)  of  camphor,  which 
at  Sumatra  is  sold  for  only  $160,  and  at  Japan  would  be  disposed 
of  at  a  still  lower  price.  Nowhere  are  found  finer  ratans.  The 
fruit  of  a  beautiful  tree  called  hanari  furnishes  a  delicious  table 
oil.  The  trees  producing  useful  resin  gums  —  the  benzoin,  gutta 
percha,  dragon's  blood,  gutta  gambir,  sandarach,  &c.  —  are  ex- 
tremely numerous  in  Borneo.  Pepper,  betel,  ginger,  cinnamon, 
rice,  yams,  and  cotton  also  abound.  Some  of  the  family  of  palm 
trees  are  likewise  found  there,  wdiose  various  products  —  among 
others  those  of  the  cabbage  palm — are  highly  appreciated  by  the 
inhabitants. 

Animals.  —  Borneo  produces  the  largest  species  of  monkeys  ; 
the  pongo,  which  is  about  four  feet  in  height,  and  the  orang- 
outang, or  man  of  the  woods,  which  bears  even  greater  resemblance 
to  the  human  species.  It  contains  also  wild  boars,  babyroussas, 
elephants,  two  species  of  rhinoceros,  —  the  one-horned  and  two- 
horned, — two  black-haired  bears — the  Borneo  bear,  and  the  Ma- 
lay bear,  &c.  Animals  characteristic  of  Borneo,  and  of  all  the 
islands  of  Malaysia,  are  the  flying  quadrupeds,  which,  strictly 
speaking,  do  not  fly,  but  are  enabled  to  bound  from  one  tree  to 
another  by  means  of  an  extension  of  the  skin  between  their  fore 
and  hind  legs,  which  skin  serves  to  sustain  them  in  the  air,  and 
answers  the  purpose  of  an  umbrella.  Such  are  the  galeopitheques, 
or  fiying  cats,  somewhat  resembling  bats,  and  great  destroyers  of 
humming  birds,  butterflies,  and  all  kinds  of  insects.  There  are, 
moreover,  frugivorous  bats,  which  really  fly,  and  differ  from  the 
bats  of  other  countries,  inasmuch  as  they  subsist  solely  on  vege- 
tables :  the  edible  rosset,  for  example,  one  of  the  largest  that  is 
known,  is  here  encountered  in  troops  of  many  hundreds,  and  even 
thousands. 


OCEANICA.  593 


Flying  Cat. 

The  population  is  composed  of  Malays  and  Chinese  on  the 
coasts,  and  of  negroes  in  the  interior  of  the  country.  Among  the 
latter,  the  most  celebrated  are  the  Dyaks,  or  head  cutters,  so 
called  on  account  of  a  detestable  code  of  honor,  which  encourages 
the  idea  that  the  more  heads  a  man  has  cut,  the  more  respect  he 
merits.  They  have  a  horrible  custom  of  ornamenting  their  dwell- 
ings with  human  skulls ;  and  there  is  no  enterprise  which  they 
will  not  undertake,  either  by  force  or  stratagem,  against  the 
neighboring  tribes,  in  order  to  possess  themselves  of  these  shock- 
ing trophies  :  a  young  man  cannot  think  of  marrying  until  he  has 
decapitated  at- least  one  enemy.  Nevertheless,  we  are  happy  to 
have  it  in  our  power  to  add  that  these  abominable  ideas  are  be- 
ginning to  be  modified,  and  to  disappear  under  the  influence  of 
the  preaching  of  the  gospel,  which  has  been  introduced  into  this 
country  by  missionaries.  The  mass  of  the  population  are  Ma- 
hometans and  pagans.  The  Dutch,  established  at  different  points 
on  the  coasts,  exercise  their  supremacy  over  more  than  half  of 
the  island. 

Philippine  Islands.  —  These  islands,  discovered  by  Magel- 
lan, the  famous  navigator,  who  first  made  the  circuit  of  the  world, 
were  called  Philippines  in  honor  of  Philip  II.,  King  of  Spain. 
They  are  traversed  by  a  chain  of  mountains,  including  terrible 
volcanoes,  which  cause  frequent  earthquakes.  The  two  largest 
are  Luzon  at  the  north,  and  Mindanao  at  the  south. 

The  climate  is  fine,  but  very  damp,  and  ill  adapted  to  European 
constitutions.  Intense  heat  is  succeeded  by  violent  rains,  fre- 
50* 


594  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

quently  accompanied,  when  the  monsoon  is  changing,  by  those 
terrible  typhoons,  or  hurricanes,  which  occasion  such  serious  dis- 
asters in  the  China  Seas,  but  which  purify  the  air  by  dispelHng 
the  miasma  and  vapors  emanating  from  the  forests  and  marshes 
during  the  rainy  season.  These  typhoons  are  usually  attended 
by  waterspouts  —  columns  of  water  uplifted  by  a  rapid  revolution 
of  the  au'  as  high  as  the  nearest  clouds,  and  the  danger  of  which 
navigators  lose  no  time  in  averting,  by  firing  cannon  shot  into  their 
midst,  and  thus  seeking  to  dissipate  them.  These  islands  contain 
gold  and  various  other  metals,  which  are  negligently  explored. 

Vegetables.  —  A  constant  succession  of  excessive  heat  and  vio- 
lent rains  renders  the  Philippines  extremely  fertile.  The  trees 
are  almost  always  laden  with  flowers  and  fruits.  Although  the 
pepper,  spices,  and  many  exquisite  fruits  of  Southern  Malaysia 
do  not  succeed  there,  the  soil  is  eminently  favorable  for  the  culti- 
vation of  rice,  sugar  cane,  and  tobacco,  which  are  the  essential 
products  of  these  islands.  The  Spaniards  have  introduced  the 
wheat  and  leguminous  plants  of  Europe,  as  also  the  cacao  and 
coffee.  Among  the  indigenous  vegetables  should  be  named  the 
cotton  and  indigo  plants,  ginger,  pineapples,  many  species  of  ba- 
nana, the  tamarind,  which  attains  the  size  of  our  largest  trees, 
and  the  mango  tree,  which  produces  the  largest  and  most  es- 
teemed mangoes  in  the  world.  Mangroves,  bamboos,  and  ratans 
form  thick  forests  in  the  marshes. 

Animals.  —  The  Philippines  produce  many  horses,  oxen,  and 
sheep.  The  fat  of  pork  takes  the  place  of  butter,  which  is  not 
manufactured,  because  the  care  of  a  coav  and  the  trouble  of  milk- 
ing are  labors  beyond  the  energy  of  the  indolent  inhabitants  of 
these  islands.  The  great  flying  squirrel  is  frequently  met  with  in 
the  Philippines  ;  it  is  a  nocturnal  animal,  which  sleeps  by  day  in 
the  hole  of  a  tree,  whence  it  only  issues  by  night  to  seek  the  birds 
and  seeds  which  compose  its  habitual  food.  Owing  to  the  mem- 
brane which  extends  between  its  paws,  it  can  leap  considerable 
distances  from  one  tree  to  another ;  its  disposition  is  mild  and 
gentle ;  it  may  be  easily  tamed,  but  never  becomes  attached. 
Neither  tigers,  elephants,  nor  rhinoceroses  are  found  in  these 
islands  ;  but  there  are  many  wild  boars,  stags,  deer,  monkeys,  wild 
cats,  serpents,  and  crocodiles.     The  white  ants  often  devastate  an 


OCEANICA. 


595 


entire  storehouse  during  one  night ;  the  silk  worms  are  produced 
naturally,  and  yield  several  harvests  a  year. 

The  population  belongs  to  several  races:  the  negroes,  the 
primitive  possessors  of  the  country,  have  been  driven  into  the 
mountains,  into  the  depths  of  the  thickest  forests,  where  they  live 
by  hunting  and  fishing.  Malays  occupy  the  coasts,  and  form  the 
basis  of  the  population.  Chinese,  in  considerable  numbers,  are 
engaged  in  commerce  in  the  ports ;  Spaniards  inhabit  the  cities 
of  the  principal  of  these  islands.  The  Tagals  of  the  Island  of 
Luzon  have  been  converted  to  Catholicism  by  the  labors  of  Span- 
ish priests,  and  they  are  distinguished  among  all  the  Malays  for 
their  morality,  industry,  and  prosperity  ;  they  are  extremely  sub- 
missive to  the  clergy,  and  celebrate,  with  much  pomp  and  display, 
all  the  ceremonies  of  the  Catholic  worship.  Their  features  are 
characterized  by  a  certain  degree  of  nobility  and  pride,  and  the 
women  are  often  remarkably  beautiful  in  spite  of  their  dark  com- 
plexion ;  but  their  habit  of  smoking  and  chewing  the  betel  pro- 
duces a  very  disagreeable   impression   upon   foreigners.      The 


'    Tagal  Houses. 

cigars  used  by  the  women  at  Manila  (capital  of  the  Spanish 
possessions)  are  an  inch  and  a  half  in  thickness  and  seven  or 
eight  inches  in  length.  The  women  of  the  upper  classes  make 
use  of  a  tobacco  leaf  rolled  up  in  paper  or  rice  straw.     The 


596  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

Spanish  ladies  bom  in  the  island  conform  to  the  customs  of  the 
natives  ;  and  it  is  very  common,  on  the  promenade,  to  see  young 
ladies,  elegantly  attired,  smoking  in  their  open  equipages,  whilst  a 
servant,  stationed  on  the  step,  holds  in  his  hand  a  lighted  match. 

The  houses  of  the  Tagals,  constructed  of  elastic  bamboos  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  withstand  the  earthquakes,  and  usually  raised 
a  few  feet  above  the  ground  on  account  of  the  constant  moisture 
of  a  country  of  rice  plantations,  present  a  very  original  aspect. 
The  description  of  the  Tagals  applies  likewise  to  the  Bisayans, 
who  inhabit  the  small  islands  situated  south  of  Luzon.  The 
Mindanaos,  inhabitants  of  the  large  island  of  the  same  name,  are 
independent  of  the  Spaniards,  upon  whom  they  wage  an  inces- 
sant war  of  surprise  and  plunder.  They  are  almost  all  Mahom- 
etans, and  render  themselves  formidable  as  pirates  on  the  neigh- 
boring seas. 

Sect.  4.  Polynesia.  —  The  name  Polynesia  (signify- 
ing many  islands)  has  been  bestowed  upon  the  archipelagoes 
which  are  scattered  over  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  natives  all 
speak  dialects  of  the  same  tongue,  and  seem  to  belong  to  one  and 
the  same  race,  the  Malay  bearing  the  strongest  resemblance  to 
the  copper-colored  tribes  of  America.  They  are  intelligent  and 
industrious,  conversant  with  the  art  of  navigation,  very  well  versed 
in  commerce,  and  seem  to  enter  readily  into  the  vast  current  of 
European  civilization.  At  the  commencement  of  this  century 
all  the  Polynesians  were  sanguinary  savages,  deeply  corrupted, 
and  from  whom  navigators  had  every  thing  to  fear ;  but,  through 
the  labors  of  the  missionaries  of  different  churches,  a  more  or  less 
complete  transformation  has  been  wrought  in  these  once  benight- 
ed regions ;  and  it  may  now  be  affirmed  that  there  is  no  archi- 
pelago of  any  considerable  importance  which  does  not  possess  a 
Christian  population  and  churches. 

The  Sandwich  Islands,  the  most  northern  and  most  impor- 
tant archipelago,  are  eleven  in  number,  eight  only  of  which  are 
inhabited.  The  largest  is  Hawaii,  memorable  as  the  place  where 
the  famous  Captain  Cook,  after  being  first  worshipped  as  a  god, 
was  killed  by  the  natives  in  1779.  It  contains  several  volcanoes 
from  12,000  to  14,000  feet  in  height:  Mouna  Roa,  whose  crater 
is  two  and  a  half  leagues  in  circumference,  at  the  bottom  of  which 


OCEANICA.  '  697 

a  sea  of  lava  is  perpetually  boiling.  Wahoo,  the  most  beautiful 
of  these  islands,  has  been  entitled  the  "  Garden  of  Sandwich." 
The  climate  is  mild  and  uniform ;  rains  are  frequent.  The  soil 
is  fertile,  and  produces  an  abundance  of  taro,  whose  roots  consti- 
tute the  chief  food  of  the  natives  ;  also,  the  sweet  potato,  yams, 
the  fruits  of  the  bread  tree,  bananas,  melons,  which  are  as  com- 
mon there  as  turnips  in  this  country,  sugar  cane,  ginger,  tobacco, 
cotton,  cocoa  nuts,  oranges,  and  sandal  wood,  now  almost  com- 
pletely exhausted.  The  cultivation  of  indigo  and  arrowroot  has 
also  been  introduced.  The  only  indigenous  quadrupeds  were 
hogs,  dogs,  and  rats ;  but  the  domestic  animals  of  Europe  have 
been  imported. 

The  'population  is  generally  composed  of  large,  strong,  and 
agile  men,  remarkably  active  and  industrious,  constructing  ships 
and  schooners,  and  profiting  by  their  advantageous  situation  be- 
tween America  and  Asia  by  engaging  in  an  active  commerce. 
At  the  commencement  of  this  century,  the  natives  of  these  islands 
were  still  savages,  annually  sacrificing  hundreds  of  human  vic- 
tims to  their  abominable  idols.  More  than  half  of  the  children 
were  destroyed  by  their  mothers,  and  one  of  these  women,  now 
become  a  pious  Christian,  would  confess,  with  tears,  that  she  has 
thus  cut  short  the  existence  of  eight  of  her  own  children.  The 
condition  of  the  women  was,  moreover,  horrible ;  they  neither 
ventured  to  eat  in  the  same  house  with  the  men,  nor  to  touch 
their  food ;  the  flesh  of  dogs  was  the  only  meat  allowed  them. 
In  the  same  islands  which  now  provision  so  many  foreign  vessels 
with  meat  and  vegetables,  famines  were  frequent,  and  it  was  no 
rare  thing  for  old  men  and  children  to  die  of  starvation.  The 
chiefs,  who  exercised  over  their  subjects  a  desperate  authority, 
alone  lived  in  luxury,  and  acquired  excessive  fatness.  These 
islanders,  who  are  now  remarkable  for  their  neatness,  were  then 
devoured  by  vermin,  and  very  subject  to  cutaneous  diseases. 

At  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  first  American  missionaries, 
in  April,  1820,  the  young  king  of  these  islands  had  just  thrown 
off  the  yoke  of  his  priests,  abolished  idolatry,  and  prohibited  hu- 
man sacrifices.  But  such  a  revolution  had  completely  disorgan- 
ized the  social  state ;  there  was  no  security  either  for  property  or 
life  ;  oppression,  violence,  murder,  and  the  most  audacious  cor- 


598  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

ruption  every  where  prevailed.  Now,  after  thirty-four  years  of 
labor  and  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  missionaries,  this  people  have 
become  a  Christian  nation.  A  fourth  of  the  inhabitants  are  ef- 
ficient members  of  Protestant  churches,  who  religiously  observe 
the  Sabbath ;  have  erected  a  great  number  of  temples ;  practise 
Christian  matrimony  ;  have,  for  the  most  part,  learned  to  read ; 
possess  the  Bible,  translated  into  their  own  language  ;  study  our 
arts  and  trades ;  have  established  schools,  and  even  maintain  an 
academy  where  foreign  languages,  sciences,  and  theology  are 
taught.  In  a  political  point  of  view,  a  constitution  has  been  pro- 
mulgated by  the  king  and  chiefs ;  the  police  is  thoroughly  organ- 
ized, and  the  king  of  this  little  state  has  had  the  satisfaction  of 
seeing  his  independence  recognized  by  the  United  States  and  the 
great  powers  of  Europe.  The  Christian  work  seemed  to  be  so 
fully  confirmed,  that  the  churches  of  Sandwich  were,  last  year, 
left  to  themselves  by  the  American  Society  of  Missions,  and  they 
have  already,  in  their  own  name,  despatched  evangelical  preachers 
into  different  islands  of  Polynesia.  Since  the  times  of  the  prim- 
itive church,  the  gospel  had  never  achieved,  by  the  simple  means 
of  persuasion,  so  rapid,  so  complete,  and  so  decisive  a  triumph. 
The  Catholic  missionaries  brought  thither,  and  protected  by 
French  squadrons,  have  likewise  obtained  signal  although  far 
less  important  results. 

The  Marquesas  Islands,  called  also  Noohaheeva,  from  the 
name  of  the  largest  among  them,  form  an  archipelago,  situated 
south-east  of  that  of  Sandwich.  They  are  very  mountainous, 
arid  on  the  heights,  quite  thickly  wooded  in  the  well-watered  val- 
leys, the  only  places  where  the  soil  is  susceptible  of  cultivation. 
The  climate  is  salubrious,  but  very  dry.  The  productions  present 
nothing  remarkable.  The  inhabitants  are  esteemed  the  hand- 
somest and  whitest  of  all  the  Polynesians.  They  are  large,  ro- 
bust, and  vigorous,  passionately  fond  of  war ;  cannibals  to  such 
an  extent,  that  in  times  of  famine  they  not  only  devour  their 
prisoners,  but  even  women  and  children  of  their  own  tribes.  No- 
where has  the  art  of  tattooing  been  carried  to  such  a  degree  of 
perfection  ;  it  once  constituted  the  indispensable  ornament  of  the 
chief,  the  priest,  and  the  soldier.  This  operation,  which  consisted 
in  delineating  various  figures  on  different  portions  of  the  body, 


OCEANICA. 


699 


by  introducing  coloring  matter  into"  the  flesh  with  the  point  of  a 
bone,  was  a  long  and  painful  operation,  which  is  now  almost 
every  where  abandoned.  France  took  possession  of  these  islands 
in  1842. 


Tattooed  Nookaheeva. 


The  Low  Islands,  or  Pomotou  Archipelago,  south  of  the  Mar- 
quesas Islands,  are  flat,  sandy  bodies  of  land,  encompassed  by 
coral  reefs.  They  are  distributed  in  two  groups  —  that  of  the 
Evil  Sea  at  the  north,  and  the  Dangerous  Archipelago  at  the 
south.  With  these  islands  are  naturally  associated  the  Gambier 
group,  five  or  six  islands,  surrounded  by  a  circular  reef,  and 
whose  inhabitants,  recently  civilized  by  Catholic  missionaries,  and 
placed  under  the  protectorate  of  France,  have  made  remarkable 
progress  in  every  respect.  Farther  east  is  found  the  little  Island 
of  Pitcairn,  which  contains  nearly  100  inhabitants,  descendants 
of  mutinous  English  sailors,  who  in  1789,  after  many  adventures, 
sought  refuge  on  this  islet,  whence  almost  all  perished  victims  of 
their  internal  dissensions  ;  but  one  of  their  number,  John  Adams, 


600  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

a  convert  to  Christianity,  instructed  the  women  and  children,  and 
organized  a  small,  well-regulated,  and  patriarchal  government, 
which  still  exists.  Much  farther  east  is  the  Island  of  Paques, 
the  most  eastern  inhabited  land  of  Oceanica,  a  small  island  which 
deserves  mention  on  account  of  its  singular  monuments,  consist- 
ing of  colossal  statues  and  edifices,  constructed  of  huge  stones, 
whose  execution  seems  to  appertain  to  a  people  anterior  to  the 
rude  Polynesians,  who  now  inhabit  this  volcanic  rock,  destitute 
of  springs  and  trees. 

The  celebrated  Society  Islands  are  situated  west,  and  not  far 
distant  from  the  Pomotou.  The  largest  and  most  important  of 
these  islands  is  Otaheite,  or  Tahiti,  composed  of  two  rounded 
peninsulas,  which  are  connected  by  an  isthmus  of  one  and  a  fourth 
miles  in  breadth.  The  next  after  Tahiti  are  Ermio  and  Raiatea. 
The  aspect  of  all  these  islands  is  volcanic.  In  the  centre  are 
mountains  which  rise  10,000  feet  in  height,  and  diverge  in  short 
chains  towards  the  shore,  where  are  found  plains  bordering  the 
island,  and  displaying  an  inconceivable  luxuriance  of  vegetation. 
These  islands,  as  a  whole,  present  a  generally  enchanting  aspect, 
and  Tahiti,  in  particular,  merits  the  title  of  the  Queen  of  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean,  Almost  all  of  them  are  encompassed  by  a  bank  of 
coral,  from  20  to  30  paces  in  breadth,  and  usually  situated  about 
a  mile  from  the  coast.  The  wind,  which  blows  constantly  from 
the  main  sea,  drives  the  waves  violently  thither,  and  the  latter, 
after  madly  shooting  upwards,  descend  in  sheets  of  foam ;  the 
lagoon,  however,  situated  between  the  coral  reef  and  the  coast,  is 
usually  as  tranquil  as  a  pond.  If  the  islands  are  very  small,  and 
contain  no  rivers,  the  reef  often  makes  the  entire  circuit  of  them  ; 
but  wherever  a  watercourse  of  any  importance  empties  into  the 
sea,  the  bank  of  coral  usually  presents  an  opening,  which  not  only 
forms  an  extremely  safe  harbor,  but  also  affords  navigators  a  reli- 
able watering  place  ;  thus,  even  here,  we  cannot  fail  to  recognize 
the  bounty  of  Providence,  which,  while  providing  for  the  entrance 
and  egress  of  ships,  has  also  made  provision  for  one  of  their  most 
indispensable  supplies. 

The  climate  is  hot,  but  not  scorching,  and  the  temperature 
varies  but  little,  owing,  doubtless,  to  the  immense  extent  of  water 
which  surrounds  these  islands.    The  sky  is  almost  always  clear ; 


OCEANICA.  601 

but  at  the  time  of  the  rainy  season,  the  showers  often  continue 
during  several  weeks.  Neither  the  waterspouts  nor  hurricanes 
of  the  Indian  Sea  are  known  there  ;  but  gales  of  wind  are  some- 
times experienced,  from  which  the  plantations,  and  even  the 
houses,  suffer  much  damage.  Thunder  storms  are  more  terrible 
in  these  latitudes  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 

Vegetables.  —  The  heat  of  a  tropical  climate,  combined  with 
great  moisture,  and  acting  upon  a  fertile  soil,  renders  the  vegeta- 
tion of  these  islands  both  rapid  and  vigorous.  The  botanical 
kingdom  is,  however,  more  abundant  than  varied.  Beautiful 
forests  cover  the  sides  of  the  hills  and  mountains.  Among  the 
different  vegetables  should  be  mentioned  the  paper  mulberry  tree, 
whose  bark,  suitably  beaten  and  prepared,  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  fine  and  soft  cloth ;  the  harringtonia,  a  tree  with  flowers 
resembling  the  lily,  and  whose  fruit,  mixed  with  poison,  is  thrown 
into  the  sea,  in  order  to  intoxicate  the  fish,  which  then  suffer 
themselves  to  be  taken  with  the  hand ;  the  finest  sugar  canes  in 
the  world ;  twenty-eight  varieties  of  jacca  trees,  which  grow  natu- 
rally in  all  these  islands,  (and  three  of  these  trees  are  sufficient  for 
the  subsistence  of  a  man,  each  plant  producing  two  and  sometimes 
three  crops  a  year  ;)  fifteen  varieties  of  bananas,  cocoa  nut  trees, 
yams,  the  potato,  and  finally  the  taro,  the  most  useful  plant  to 
the  islanders  next  to  the  bread  tree. 

Animals,  —  The  archipelago  contains  no  serpents.  The  only 
venomous  reptiles  (and  even  their  sting  involves  no  serious  con- 
sequences) are  a  species  of  centiped  and  a  very  small  variety  of 
the  scorpion.  There  are  no  birds  of  prey,  and  no  wild  beasts, 
except  a  few  wild  boars  and  dogs,  whose  presence  in  the  moun- 
tains occasions  few  accidents.  At  the  time  of  its  discovery,  the 
only  quadrupeds  were  the  hog,  which  still  abounds ;  the  dog, 
whose  flesh,  regarded  as  a  delicate  dish,  was  reserved  for  the 
chiefs ;  and  rats  infested  the  islands  until  cats  were  introduced, 
which  are  now  highly  appreciated  in  every  house.  The  birds 
are  neither  distinguished  for  the  beauty  of  their  plumage  nor 
the  melody  of  their  song  ;  there  are  many  paroquets,  turtle  doves, 
kingfishers,  and  bluish  herons.  The  Europeans  have  here  nat- 
uralized most  of  their  domestic  animals. 

The  population  have  an  olive  complexion,  oval  face,  open  fwe- 
51 


602  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

head,  full,  brilliant,  and  jet  black  eyes,  straight  and  aquiline  nose, 
and  a  somewhat  large  mouth,  revealing  teeth  of  dazzling  white- 
ness ;  their  hair  is  black,  smooth,  or  curly,  but  never  woolly. 
They  are  grave,  courageous,  and  of  a  frank  and  open  disposition. 
Less  sanguinary,  but  even  more  corrupt,  than  the  Sandwich 
Islanders,  the  Tahitians  were  earlier  initiated  into  the  gospel, 
which  was  carried  thither  in  the  year  1797,  by  Enghsh  mission- 
aries. It  was  scarcely,  however,  until  the  commencement  of 
1815,  that  they  began  to  renounce  idolatry  and  human  sacrifices, 
together  with  the  practice  of  infanticide.  Christianity  has  by 
degrees  transformed  the  new  generations ;  almost  all  know 
how  to  read  and  write ;  excellent  schools  and  churches  have 
been  established  throughout  the  country;  the  Bible,  and  nu- 
merous other  pious,  moral,  or  instructive  works,  have  been 
placed  in  the  hands  of  these  islanders,  who  are  now  all  lodged 
and  clothed  according  to  the  European  model,  and  devote  them- 
selves to  various  arts  or  cultivations,  of  which  the  first  naviga- 
tors who  visited  them  would  have  pronounced  them  incapable. 
In  a  word,  although  morality  here,  as  elsewhere,  is  not  entirely 
satisfactory,  although  civilization  is  still  immature  and  ill  con- 
firmed, and  although,  by  the  establishment  of  the  protectorship 
of  a  Catholic  power,  the  churches  have  been  prematurely  de- 
prived of  the  support  of  their  natural  directors,  the  English 
missionaries,  who  had  given  them  birth,  this  little  Tahitian  nation, 
continuing  firm  in  its  Protestant  faith,  and  unceasingly  making 
new  advances  in  the  path  of  progress,  presents  one  of  the  most 
interesting  monuments  of  the  awakening  of  evangelical  faith  in 
the  nineteenth  century. 

The  Austral  Islands,  about  200  leagues  south  of  Tahiti,  consti- 
tute a  little  archipelago  of  five  islands,  all  inconsiderable,  the 
best  known  of  which  are  Rouroutou  and  Touhouai.  All  the  na- 
tives have  long  been  evangelized  through  the  active  zeal  of  the 
native  Christians  of  the  Society  Islands. 

Cooh  Islands,  situated  south-west  of  Tahiti,  form  small  groups 
of  islands,  so  depopulated  by  cannibalism  and  wars,  that  in  Har- 
vey, for  example,  there  remained  in  1830  only  three  women  and 
five  men ;  and  yet  among  the  latter  the  title  of  king  was  contested. 
Tliese  islands  have  all  become  Christianized  through  the  mission- 


OCEANICA.  603 

ary  zeal  of  Taliitian  believers,  and  the  activity  of  the  martyr 
Williams,  the  apostle  of  Oceanica.  They  possess  the  Bible  in 
their  own  language,  temples  of  worship,  and  schools,  and  the  pop- 
ulation is  making  gradual  advancement.  Earatonga  is  the  most 
prosperous  and  celebrated  among  them. 

The  Navigator's  Islands,  300  leagues  north-west  of  the  preced- 
ing, have  likewise  been  converted  to  Christianity  by  the  labors 
of  Williams.  Some  of  them,  such  as  Savaii,  Upolue,  and  Tutuila, 
are  large,  mountainous,  and  fertile,  all  quite  well  peopled,  and 
producing  vigorous  and  intelhgent  islanders,  distinguished  in  the 
art  of  navigation,  which  has  won  for  these  islands  the  name  con- 
ferred upon  them  by  Bougainville,  when  he  discovered  them,  in 
1768.  West  of  these  are  found  the  very  small  clusters  of  Wallis 
and  Fotouna,  over  which  France  estabhshed  her  protectorship  in 
1844,  and  whose  inhabitants  have  been  converted  to  Catholicism 
by  French  missionaries. 

The  Tonga  or  Friendly  Islands,  south-west  of  the  Samoan,  are 
divided  into  three  archipelagoes,  that  of  Tonga  at  the  south,  Hapai 
in  the  centre,  and  Vavao  at  the  north  ;  but  Tonga-tahoo,  or  Tonga 
the  Sacred,  is  much  the  most  considerable  of  all  these  islands. 
They  have  nearly  all  become  evangelized,  but  the  pagan  portion 
obstinately  resist  the  authority  of  King  George  ;  and  other  Prot- 
estant chiefs  and  Catholic  missionaries  of  the  Wallis  Islands,  by 
interposing  in  these  contests,  have  not  facilitated  the  adjustment 
of  the  difficulties.  Dissensions  have  recently  arisen  in  the  Island 
of  Tonga,  but  the  authority  of  the  king  seems  to  have  triumphed 
without  bloodshed. 

New  Zealand,  south-west  of  the  Friendly  group,  consists  of 
two  large  islands  separated  from  each  other  by  Cooh's  Strait,  from 
four  to  six  leagues  in  breadth.  The  northern  island,  called  New 
Ulster,  is  furnished  with  broad  bays  and  excellent  ports.  The 
other,  New  Munster,  is  extremely  mountainous,  difficult  of  ap- 
proach, and  possesses  very  few  harbors.  Their  surface  almost 
equals  that  of  Great  Britain,  and  they  are  opposite,  or,  as  we 
sometimes  say,  at  the  antipodes  of  France.  The  coast  is  gener- 
ally rugged,  high,  and  steep ;  the  countries  in  the  interior  pre- 
sent an  undulating,  unequal  surface,  and  the  mountains  are  covered 
with  snow  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year.    Mount  Edgecumbcj 


604  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  NATURE. 

in  the  northern  island,  not  far  from  Cook's  Strait,  is  no  less  than 
10,000  feet  high. 

The  climate  is  temperate  and  salubrious,  especially  in  the  north; 
the  southern  island  is  colder,  and  exposed  to  violent  hurricanes, 
of  which  its  shores,  so  singularly  corroded  by  the  waves,  bear 
the  impress. 

The  mineral  substances  are  unimportant.  Thermal  and  sul- 
phurous waters  are  found  there,  and  jade,  a  stone  of  which  the 
natives  manufacture  weapons  and  sharp  instruments. 

The  soil  is  fertile,  and  susceptible  of  all  kinds  of  cultivation. 
The  cereals,  roots,  and  legumes  of  Europe  succeed  very  well,  as 
likewise  batatas,  yams,  maize,  and  taro.  Before  the  discovery 
of  these  countries  by  the  Dutch  Tasman,  the  natives  possessed 
few  alimentary  plants  except  the  esculent  fernf  whose  very  fibrous 
roots  yield  a  nourishing  juice  ;  a  species  of  pur  slain,  now  culti- 
vated in  our  gardens  under  the  name  of  New  Zealand  spinage, 
and  which  possesses  over  the  common  spinage  the  advantage  of 
keeping  for  a  great  length  of  time,  and  of  perfectly  resisting  the 
heat  of  summer;  and  the  tea  myrtle,  which  grows  on  the  hills 
bordering  the  sea,  and  serves  to  take  the  place  of  China  tea.  But 
the  inhabitants  of  New  Zealand  find  other  more  importaint  sources 
of  wealth  in  the  cultivation  of  its  magnificent  pines,  no  less  es- 
teemed for  joinery  and  timber  work  than  for  the  masting  of  ves- 
sels. These  are  the  kauri  pines,  or  dammara  australis,  whose 
full-grown  forests,  like  a  quincunx  of  immense  columns,  frequent- 
ly present  trees  which  rise  90  feet  in  height  without  branches, 
and  above  which  spreads  a  dome  of  verdure  so  dense  as  to  exclude 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  Beneath  these  solitary  and  silent  arches,  a 
religious  and  solemn  impression  involuntarily  takes  possession  of 
the  soul  of  man,  and  fills  his  mind  with  a  deep  sense  of  the  power 
and  majesty  of  the  Creator.  A  production  of  this  country,  which 
has  become  rare,  and  which  has  lost  much  of  its  former  reputa- 
tion, is  the  New  Zealand  flax,  a  plant  which  grows  spontaneously 
in  low  and  damp  soils,  and  whose  stalk  somewhat  resembles  that 
of  the  iris.  The  leaves,  which  are  broad,  and  diverge  in  long 
streamers,  contain  fibres  from  which  the  native^  procure  a  flax  as 
remarkable  for  its  fineness  and  silky  lustre,  as  for  its  extreme 
tenacity,  and  of  which  they  make  their  finest  cloth,  as  also  lines 


OCEANICA.  605 

and  cordage.    Attracted  at  first  by  its  tenacity,  Europeans  had 
thought  of  naturalizing  this  plant  in  their  own  countries,  when 


New  Zealand  Flax. 


they  discovered,  that  after  one  or  two  washings,  cloth  manufac- 
tured of  this  material  became  reduced  to  tow,  whilst  the  cables 
exposed  to  the  damp  air  broke  and  crumbled  to  pieces.  This 
circumstance  has  effectually  deterred  them  from  encouraging  the 
use  of  this  textile  plant. 

Animals.  —  As  respects   mammals.  New  Zealand  produced 
only  dogs  and  rats.     The  Europeans  have  introduced  oxen,  hogs, 
goats,  sheep,  and  poultry,  all  of  which  have  easily  become  accli- 
51*  '     •* 


606 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 


mated.    There  are  few  insects  or  butterflies,  but  some  remarkable 
birds,  among  others  the  ajpteryx,  a  bird  of  the  ostrich  and  casso- 


Apteryx. 

wary  family,  which  seems  to  be  rapidly  disappearing,  and  proba- 
bly only  owes  its  preservation  up  to  this  period  to  its  nocturnal 
habits  and  the  burrows  which  it  digs.  The  principal  peculiarity 
of  this  animal  is,  that  it  flies  without  wings,  their  place  being 
merely  occupied  by  a  small  member  of  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
length,  terminating  in  a  hooked  claw.  Moreover,  its  feathers  are 
of  such  a  nature,  that  at  a  distance  one  would  mistake  them  for 


OCEANICA.  607 

hair,  or  a  falling  mane.  It  subsists  on  insects,  which  it  seizes  by- 
night  with  its  bill,  in  the  marshy  soils  where  it  delights  to  dwelh 
Its  size  little  exceeds  that  of  a  large  hen.  This  is  the  smallest 
species  of  the  ostrich  genus.  It  would  appear,  however,  that 
New  Zealand  has  produced,  up  to  the  present  time,  birds  of  this 
same  family  which  were  of  gigantic  stature,  since,  from  the  numer- 
ous bones  which  have  been  discovered,  the  dinomis  must  have 
attained  a  height  of  eleven  feet ;  that  is  to  say,  double  the  size  of 
the  largest  ostrich.  There  have  also  been  found  in  these  islands 
the  remains  of  many  races  of  birds  only  recently  become  extinct. 
The  population  are  renowned  for  their  lofty  stature,  their  vig- 
orous constitutions,  and  the  regularity  of  their  features.  For  a 
long  time,  the  New  Zealanders  rendered  themselves  formidable 
to  navigators  by  their  perfidy,  ferocity,  and  thirst  for  human 
blood.  Many  crews,  deceived  by  them,  or  disabled  by  a  tempest, 
were  massacred.  Among  themselves,  they  breathed  only  wars 
and  vengeance  ;  every  village  was  fortified  and  surrounded  by 
several  enclosures  of  stakes  ;  the  warriors  (carefully  tattooed,  and 
their  hair  adorned  with  long  plumes)  never  issued  from  their 
houses  unarmed,  or  without  taking  the  greatest  precautions.  Im- 
mediately after  a  battle,  hundreds  of  men,  women,  and  children 
v/ere  roasted  in  the  oven,  and  devoured  in  their  horrible  festivals 
by  the  victorious  army.  Even  the  children  pai'ticipated  in  these 
infernal  scenes,  and  from  their  infancy  were  excited  to  theft, 
hatred,  and  the  most  cruel  deeds.  Their  gods  were  only  mali- 
cious beings,  who  delighted  in  tormenting  men,  and  the  principal, 
Atna,  was  regarded  as  an  invisible  cannibal,  who  could  only  be 
exorcised  by  imprecations  and  threats,  when  he  entered  the 
body  of  an  individual,  in  order  (by  disease)  to  devour  him.  Not- 
withstanding the  ferocity  and  sanguinary  passions  of  these  terrible 
savages,  courageous  English  missionaries  have  not  been  deterred 
from  carrying  the  gospel  of  peace  into  their  midst.  The  first 
essays,  attempted  at  the  instance  of  the  venerable  Marsden,  were 
commenced  in  1819,  in  the  northern  island,  and  proved  infi- 
nitely disastrous.  The  natives  slaughtered  their  victims  before  the 
houses  of  the  missionaries ;  the  children  who  attended  their 
schools  were  often  killed  and  eaten ;  or  if  a  war  chanced  to  break 
out,  they  were  put  to  flight  and  their  houses  burned  to  the  ground. 


608  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

Nevertheless,  by  dint  of  patience,  the  malevolence  of  the  natives 
was  gradually  disarmed,  and  as  soon  as  some  of  them  had  learned 
to  read,  and  were  thus  enabled  to  appreciate  the  knowledge  which 
was  imparted  to  them,  the  desire  for  instruction  spread  from  place 
to  place  ;  every  one  wished  to  possess  a  few  fragments,  at  least, 
of  the  gospel,  and  all  commenced  the  study.  The  native  teachers 
multiplied,  and  the  Christian  doctrines  thus  penetrated  into  places 
where  no  European  had  ever  set  his  foot.  It  is  now  estimated 
that  more  than  50,000  natives  have  become  Christians,  and  the 
whole  of  the  northern  island  has  been  brought,  externally  at 
least,  under  the  influence  of  the  gospel.  The  work  has  made  less 
progress  in  the  southern  island ;  but  even  there,  where  Christian 
principles  have  not  yet  penetrated  into  the  heart,  they  have  caused 
the  disappearance  of  the  most  crying  abominations  of  idolatry  and 
cannibalism.  To  the  labors  of  the  missionaries  sent  thither  by 
different  Protestant  churches  have  been  added  those  of  a  large 
rmmber  of  Catholic  priests,  whose  efforts  have  also  met  with  some 
success.  Moreover,  since,  in  1840,  by  a  treaty  concluded  with 
the  chiefs  of  the  two  islands,  the  English  have  been  put  in  posses- 
sion of  the  sovereignty  of  this  country,  its  religious  liberty,  as  well 
as  public  peace,  has  been  carefully  protected,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  one  or  two  attempts  at  insurrection  and  violence,  the  suc- 
ceeding years  have  been  marked  by  continual  progress  in  pros- 
perity and  civilization.  A  great  number  of  English  farmers  have 
emigrated  to  New  Zealand,  which  is  now  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant colonies  of  Great  Britain,  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  fruits  of  the  missionary  zeal  of  the  Christians 
of  modern  times. 

To  New  Zealand  belong  many  islands  of  secondary  importance, 
and  which  are  still,  for  the  most  part,  uninhabited  —  Stewart,  a 
large  body  of  land  near  the  coasts  south  of  New  Munster,  and 
AuHand  at  the  south-east.  The  principal  island  of  the  Chatham 
group  is  of  considerable  size,  and  inhabited  by  savages  of  the 
same  race  as  those  of  New  Zealand.  The  Kermadec  Islands,  at 
the  north-east,  are  unoccupied ;  Norfolk,  on  the  contrary,  at  the 
north-west,  renowned  for  its  magnificent  pines  and  its  cabbage 
palms,  is  a  place  of  transportation  for  the  most  incorrigible  crim- 
inals of  England  and  the  penal  colonies  of  Australia,  a  kind  of 
terrestrial  purgatory. 


OCEANIC  A.  609 

The  Archipelago  of  Magellan,  and  the  Archipelago  of  Anson, 
east  of  Japan,  consist  of  little  but  deserted  islands,  frequently- 
laid  waste  by  volcanoes,  and  where  scarcely  any  thing  is  to  be 
seen  except  tortoises,  rossets,  bird^,  and  in  some  of  them  wild 
hogs.  At  the  north-east,  and  completely  isolated  in  the  midst  of 
the  sea,  is  found  Lot's  Wife,  a  huge  rock,  which  rises  perpendicu- 
larly to  a  height  of  340  feet,  and  in  whose  cavernous  sides  tumul- 
tuous waves  are  ingulfed  with  a  terrible  report. 

The  Marianne  Islands,  south-east  of  the  preceding,  form  a  long 
chain,  disposed  in  a  line  from  north  to  south.  They  were  dis- 
covered in  1521,  by  Magellan,  who  surnamed  them  Ladrones,  or 
Islands  of  the  Thieves,  from  the  thievish  propensities  by  which 
the  natives  were  characterized.  They  afterwards  received  their 
present  appellation  from  a  Queen  of  Spain,  who  sent  thither  the 
first  Catholic  missionaries.  The  climate  is  hot  without  being  un- 
healthy. The  productions  are  those  of  the  countries  lying  nearest 
to  the  equator  —  cocoa  nut,  jacca,  orange  trees,  &c. 

The  Spaniards  have  introduced  into  these  islands,  and  especially 
into  Guam,  cotton,  cacao,  indigo,  maize,  and  sugar  cane,  and  they 
have  also  naturalized  our  domestic  animals,  which,  in  those  of  the 
islands  that  are  deserted,  live  wild  in  the  forests.  They  have 
exterminated  the  greater  part  of  the  ancient  population,  by  en- 
deavoring to  impose  their  religion  upon  them.  The  remnant, 
which  is  composed  of  natives  intermixed  with  the  Tagals  of  the 
Philippines  and  the  Indians  of  Peru,  forms  a  tolerably  civilized 
society,  wholly  Catholic,  but  indolent,  holding  labor  in  abhorrence, 
and  passionately  fond  of  music  and  cock  fights.  In  the  Island  of 
Tinian  may  be  seen  colossal  ruins,  the  memorials  of  an  unknown 
people,  and  which  indicate  a  certain  degree  of  civilization. 

The  Carolines,  situated  south  of  the  preceding,  form  an  im- 
mense chain  of  more  than  500  islands,  extending  from  west  to 
east,  over  a  length  of  nearly  600  leagues.  They  are  generally 
small,  surrounded  by  reefs,  of  an  agreeable  climate,  but  exposed 
to  hurricanes.  The  principal  productions  are  ignames,  cocoa 
nuts,  the  fruits  of  the  bread  tree,  &c. ;  many  tortoises,  holothuria, 
and  fine  shell  fish  exist  on  the  coasts ;  neither  venomous  serpents 
nor  wild  beasts  are  found  in  the  interior.  Their  inhabitants  are 
the  boldest  navigators  of  Oceanica,  and  perhaps  of  the  whole 


610  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OP  NATURE. 

world.  Many,  without  other  compass  than  the  stars,  undertake 
voyages  of  several  hundreds  of  leagues,  repairing  even  to  the 
Philippine  or  Marianne  Islands,  to  exchange  their  fruits  and  dried 
fish  for  iron,  cloth,  and  other  articles  of  which  they  have  need. 
Their  light  and  graceful  boats  seem  to  shoot  like  arrows  over  the 
sea.  They  are,  moreover,  hospitable,  and  apparently  possessed 
of  mild  and  pure  manners.  They  are  almost  all  handsome  men, 
of  the  copper-colored  race ;  but  there  are  some  negroes  among 
them. 

The  most  western  group,  known  by  the  name  of  Pelew  or  Pa- 
laos  Islands,  are  sometimes  considered  separately ;  but  these  islands 
closely  resemble  the  Carolines. 

The  immense  Archipelago  of  the  Mulgraves  is  situated  east  of 
the  Carolines,  and  extends  from  north-west  to  south-east,  on  both 
sides  of  the  equator.  It  is  composed  of  two  principal  groups,  the 
Marshall  Islands  at  the  north,  and  the  Gilbert  Islands  at  the 
south.  Each  of  the  latter  is  subdivided  into  two  other  smaller 
archipelagoes ;  the  first  comprising  the  Ralich  Islands  at  the  west, 
and  the  Radack  Islands  at  the  east ;  and  the  second  embracing 
the  Scarborough  group  at  the  north,  and  the  Kingsmill  group  at 
the  south.  These  islands,  almost  all  of  which  are  very  small, 
clothed  with  stunted  shrubs,  and  a  few  cocoa  nut  or  bread  trees, 
possess  quite  a  numerous  population,  among  whom  Christians 
from  the  Sandwich  Islands  have  diffused  the  knowledge  of  the 
gospel. 


We  have  now  arrived  at  the  conclusion  of  our  geographical 
survey,  and  trust  that  the  expectations  of  our  readers  have  been 
in  some  degree  realized.  After  thus  tracing  through  every  con- 
tinent, and  under  all  cHmates,  the  infinitely  varied  and  compas- 
sionate wisdom  of  the  Most  High,  who  has  never  left  himself 
without  a  witness  among  men,  and  whose  goodness  is  over  all  his 
works,  —  can  we  for  a  moment  suppose  that  evil,  which  reigns  in 
the  world,  proceeds  from  the  hand  of  this  all-perfect  Being  ?  And 
should  we  not  one  and  all  be  encouraged  to  seek  in  the  gospel  of 
Jesus  Christ,  which  eflfects  such  marvellous  transformations  among 


OCEANICA.  611 

the  savages  of  Oceanica,  those  means  of  purification  and  salvation 
of  which  the  heart  of  each  stands  in  need  ? 

That  God's  blessing  may  rest  upon  this  volume,  and  that  some 
truly  useful  knowledge  may  be  gleaned  from  its  pages  by  those 
who  peruse  it,  is  the  prayer,  as  it  will  be  the  sweeter  recompense, 
of  the  author. 


■ 


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